Executive Summary
Co-composting is the controlled aerobic degradation of organics, using more than one feedstock (faecal sludge and organic solid waste). As organic waste is normally the largest portion of municipal waste, composting systems can play an important role in managing waste as well as creating employment and producing a product that contributes towards food security in developing countries. Organic solid waste is collected from households and institutions and composted either at decentralised (community-based) or centralised composting plants. Pre-treated faecal sludge can be co-composted together with the solid. Faecal sludge has a high moisture and nitrogen content, while biodegradable solid waste is high in organic carbon and has good bulking properties (i.e., it allows air to flow and circulate). By combining the two, the benefits of each can be used to optimize the process and the product. Community-based decentralized composting systems can generally process about 2 to 50 tons per day and manual composting processes. Centralised composting facilities are capable of receiving 10 to 200 tons per day. There are two fundamental types of composting techniques: open or windrow composting, a slower process conducted outdoors with simple equipment, and the enclosed system composting, where composting is performed in a building, tank, box, container or vessel. Proper management of the plant and marketing of the compost are key factors to ensure the sustainability of such systems.
In | Out |
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Compost/Biosolids |
Introduction
Solid waste composting for use as a soil amendment, fertiliser or growth medium is of prime importance in many countries (EAWAG/SANDEC 2008). Asian countries in particular have a long-standing tradition of making and using compost. In Western Europe, a range of modern technologies is applied to produce compost (EAWAG/SANDEC 2008). Organic matter such as food waste and yard waste are the main components of municipal waste in the developing world. Faecal sludge can also be composted after it has been dewatered (e.g. drying beds, thickening ponds, mechanical dewatering).
For effective management and sustainability, decentralised composting systems should be treated like business ventures that use waste as raw materials and produce compost as final product that needs to be sold to different market segments. Therefore, before starting a composting project, the existing political/legal, social, technical, institutional and economic environment that can affect the operation of the compost plant and the market for compost should be carefully analysed to prepare a business plan and financial projections.
There are two types of co-composting designs: open and in-vessel(bin or box composting) . Open composting can be separated in windrow composting where air exposure is enhanced, or tranch or pit composting (STRAUSS et al. 2003).
Open Composting
Open composting is a slow but simple process (DULAC 2001). In open windrow composting, the mixed material (sludge and solid waste) is piled into long heaps called windrows and left to decompose. Windrow piles are periodically turned to provide oxygen and ensure that all parts of the pile are subjected to the same heat treatment. Aeration is also ensured by the addition of bulky materials and passive or active ventilation (STRAUSS et al. 2003). Systems with active aeration by blowers are usually referred to as forced aeration systems and when heaps are seldom turned they are referred to as static piles. Sloped and sealed or impervious composting pads (the surface where the heaps are located) control the leachate with a surrounding drainage system.
Trench and pit systems are characterized by heaps, which are partly or fully contained under the soil surface (STRAUSS et al. 2003). This allows to save space and to reduce construction cost (in comparison to boxes). Structuring the heap with bulky material or turning is usually the choice for best aeration, although turning can be cumbersome when the heap is in a deep pit and leachate control is difficult in trench or pit composting (STRAUSS et al. 2003).
In-vessel composting
The compost is placed in boxes made out of bricks, wood or mesh boxes with holes in between and a screen at the bottom. In-vessel composting requires controlled moisture and air supply, as well as mechanical mixing. Therefore, it is not generally appropriate for decentralized facilities but is less labour intensive than open composting . It also needs less space. But the the initial capital cost required for a box system is slightly higher.
Although the composting process seems like a simple, passive technology, a well-working facility requires careful planning and design to avoid failure. For effective management and sustainability, decentralized composting systems should be treated like business ventures that use waste as raw materials and produce compost as final product that needs to be sold to different market segments. Therefore, before starting a composting project, the existing political/legal, social, technical, institutional and economic environment that can affect the operation of the compost plant and the market for compost should be carefully analysed to prepare a business plan and financial projections.
Vermi-composting, which involves using special types of earthworms to convert organic waste into worm casting, can also be done in decentralized composting (ZURBRUGG et al., 2002). In a vermi-composting plant, the waste is first composted aerobically for about two weeks as in an ordinary plant. Then, the semi-decomposed waste is put in boxes with special types of worms, such as Eisenia foetida, Lumbricus rubellus, and Eisenia hortensis. Vermi-composting results in better quality compost, but the worms need more care than aerobic composting. For vermi-composting, the pile does not need turning, but the temperature and moisture needs to be suitable for the worms at all times to ensure their survival.
Decentralised composting
Decentralized waste management systems that maximize recycling can be appropriate systems for managing municipal waste in developing countries because waste minimisation and managing of waste as close to the source as possible are the two most important tools for reducing cost and improving efficiency of waste management systems. Scrap dealers generally collect inorganic waste such as plastics, metals, and glass. But organic waste is difficult to handle, store and transport. Therefore, decentralized community-based systems, such as small compost plants and biogas plants (see also anaerobic digestion of solid organic waste) are suitable for managing organic waste. Decentralised composting facilities will generally be in the range of 2 to 50 tons per day, depending on the size of the community and volume of compostable materials in the waste stream (UNEP/IETC 1996).
Centralised composting at municipal scale
Centralised composting facilities can receive up to 10 to 200 tons per day (UNEP/IETC 1996). Differences in scale, management, financing, and site selection distinguish municipal-scale composting form decentralised composting. Centralised composting plants require thus the involvement of engineering and professional designers and the involvement of all stakeholders.
Waste collection
Decentralised and centralised composting starts with waste collection. As waste collection is generally the most expensive and visible part of the waste management system, it needs to be properly planned and executed. Waste for compost plants can be collected from households, markets or institutions that generate organic waste. If possible, waste should be segregated at source before collection as to reduce the chances of having contaminants such as glass particles and heavy metals in the compost. Glass particles in the compost can severely hamper marketing of the compost (TULADHAR and BANIA, 1997) while toxic chemicals or heavy metals in the compost can damage the soil and contaminate the food chain as well. Along with waste collection, a service fee should also be charged to the waste generators so as to ensure the sustainability of the waste collection system as well as the compost plant. The amount of fee charged should depend on the cost of waste collection and composting and the willingness to pay.
Marketing of compost
In order to ensure the sustainability of the compost plant it is necessary to identify the market segments where the compost can be sold and then develop a marketing strategy to cater to these segments. The strategy should address the “4 Ps” of marketing — Product, Price, Place, and Promotion. “Product” refers to the characteristics and quality of the compost and the packaging, “price” refers to the pricing structure at the wholesale and retail levels, “place” refers to the distribution channel that connects the plant to the customers and “promotion” refers to the activities that makes the product visible and establishes it as a credible brand.
Design considerations
The facility should be located close to the sources of organic waste and faecal sludge to minimize transport costs, but still at a distance away from homes and businesses to minimize nuisances. The total land area required for a 3 ton per day compost plant is about 810 m2 for an open system and 770 m2 for an in-vessel system. This includes space for sorting, composting, screening and bagging, storage of compost and rejects, office sanitary facilities and a buffer zone (ROTHENBERGER et al., 2006). Depending on the climate and available space, the facility may be covered to prevent excess evaporation and/or provide protection from rain and wind.
At the compost plant, the waste is first sorted to remove contaminants, mixed with additives if necessary to keep the carbon to nitrogen ratio (C/N) between 25 and 40, and then placed in the windrows, boxes or trenches. Key factors affecting the biological decomposition processes of composting and/or the resulting compost quality (STRAUS et al. 2003) are:
- Carbon to nitrogen ratio (C/N)
- Moisture content
- Oxygen supply, aeration
- Particle size
- pH
- Temperature
- Turning frequency
- Microorganisms and invertebrates
- Control of pathogens
- Degree of decomposition
- Nitrogen conservation
Ratios for co-composting: For dewatered sludge, a ratio of 1:2 to 1:3 of sludge to solid waste should be used. Liquid sludge (TS of 5 %) should be used at a ratio of 1:5 to 1:10 of sludge to solid waste (STRAUSS et al. 2003; OLUFUNKE & KONE 2009).
Windrow piles should be at least 1 m high and insulated with compost or soil to promote an even distribution of heat inside the pile. To ensure aerobic conditions, the pile should be turned twice a week for the first two weeks and then once every 10 days. The temperature of the pile should increase to about 65ºC in the first week and then go down to 40 ºC over the next few weeks. After about 21 to 60 days (UNEP/IETC 1996), the composting process enters the maturing or curing phase when the pile should be left without turning for some weeks up to a year depending on the local conditions. Then the compost is screened and packed. Nutrients or other additives may be added to the compost to improve its quality or make it more attractive for the buyers.
Vermi-composting, which involves using special types of earthworms to convert organic waste into worm casting, can also be done in decentralized composting (ZURBRUGG et al., 2002). In a vermi-composting plant, the waste is first composted aerobically for about two weeks as in an ordinary plant. Then, the semi-decomposed waste is put in boxes with special types of worms, such as Eisenia foetida, Lumbricus rubellus, and Eisenia hortensis. Vermi-composting results in better quality compost, but the worms need more care than aerobic composting. For vermi-composting, the pile does not need to be turned, but the temperature and moisture needs to be suitable for the worms at all times to ensure their survival.
Health aspects/acceptance
Maintaining the temperature in the pile between 55 and 60°C can reduce the pathogen load in sludge to a level safe to touch and work with. Although the finished compost can be safely handled, care should be taken when dealing with the sludge, regardless of the previous treatment. If the material is found to be dusty, workers should wear protective clothing and use appropriate respiratory equipment. Proper ventilation and dust control are important.
Operation & maintenance
The mixture must be carefully designed so that it has the proper C:N ratio, moisture and oxygen content. If facilities exist, it would be useful to monitor helminth egg inactivation as a proxy measure of sterilization.
A well-trained staff is necessary for the operation and maintenance of the facility. Maintenance staff must carefully monitor the quality of the input material, and keep track of the inflows, outflows, turning schedules, and maturing times to ensure a high quality product. Forced aeration systems must be carefully controlled and monitored.
Turning must be periodically done with either a front-end loader or by hand. Robust grinders for shredding large pieces of solid waste (i.e., small branches and coconut shells) and pile turners help to optimize the process, reduce manual labour, and ensure a more homogenous end product.
A co-composting facility is only appropriate when there is an available source of well-sorted biodegradable solid waste. Also space is required for setting up a compost plant (about 800 m2 for a 3 ton per day plant) and a private entrepreneur or NGO with the necessary technical and managerial skills is willing to manage the plant in a professional manner.
Solid waste containing plastics and garbage must first be sorted. When carefully done, co-composting can produce a clean, pleasant, beneficial soil conditioner.
Since moisture plays an important role in the composting process, covered facilities are especially recommended where there is heavy rainfall.
Apart from technical considerations, composting only makes sense if there is a demand for the product (from paying customers). In order to find buyers, a consistent and good quality compost has to be produced; this depends on good initial sorting and a well-controlled thermophilic process.
Solid Waste Management. Lecture notes
This document provides an overview of the present state-of-the-art of solid waste production and management. It contains the characteristics of municipal solid waste and describes current waste treatment systems and technologies, as well as non-technical aspects like private sector involvement and financial arrangements.
EAWAG ; SANDEC (2008): Solid Waste Management. Lecture notes. (= Sandec Training Tool 1.0, Module 6 ). Duebendorf: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science (EAWAG), Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC) URL [Accessed: 08.04.2010]Composting and Its Applicability in Developing Countries
This informal paper argues that composting should be a more widespread practice, especially in developing countries. It reviews past composting experiences and provides an outline for municipal managers to use when evaluating composting programs within an integrated municipal waste management system.
HOORNWEG, D. THOMAS, L. OTTEN, L. (2000): Composting and Its Applicability in Developing Countries. (= Urban Waste Management Working Paper Series , 8 ). Washington, D.C.: The World Bank URL [Accessed: 05.06.2019]Helminth Eggs Inactivation Efficiency by Faecal Sludge Dewatering and Co-Composting in Tropical Climates
This study investigates helminth eggs removal and inactivation efficiency in a treatment process combining faecal sludge (FS) dewatering and subsequent co-composting with organic solid waste as a function of windrow turning frequency.
KONE, D. ; COFIE, O. ; ZURBRUEGG, C. ; GALLIZZI, K. ; MOSER, D. ; DRESCHER, S. ; STRAUSS, M. (2007): Helminth Eggs Inactivation Efficiency by Faecal Sludge Dewatering and Co-Composting in Tropical Climates. In: Water Research: Volume 41 , 4397-4402.Integrated Resource Recovery. The Co-Composting of Domestic Solid and Human Wastes
This report a valuable reference for decision makers and planners on co-composting when addressing waste management and resource recovery issues in the developing countries.
OBENG, L. A. WRIGHT, F. W. (1987): Integrated Resource Recovery. The Co-Composting of Domestic Solid and Human Wastes. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank and UNDP URL [Accessed: 21.07.2014]Co-composting faecal sludge & organic solid waste, Kumasi, Ghana
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OLUFUNKE, C. DOULAYE, K. (2009): Co-composting faecal sludge & organic solid waste, Kumasi, Ghana. (= SuSanA - Case Studies ). Eschborn: Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA) URL [Accessed: 22.05.2012]Decentralized Composting for Cities of Low-and Middle-Income Countries A Users’ Manual
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STRAUSS, M. DRESCHER, S. ZURBRUEGG, C. MONTANGERO, A. OLUFUNKE, C. DRECHSEL, P. (2003): Co-composting of Faecal Sludge and Municipal Organic Waste. Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science (EAWAG), Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC) and International Water Management Institute (IWMI) URL [Accessed: 05.06.2019]Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. 2nd Revised Edition
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OLUFUNKE, C. DOULAYE, K. (2009): Co-composting faecal sludge & organic solid waste, Kumasi, Ghana. (= SuSanA - Case Studies ). Eschborn: Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA) URL [Accessed: 22.05.2012]Community Based Decentralized Composting – Experience of Waste Concern in Dhaka
This paper presents the case study and experiences sharing of community based decentralized composting at Dhaka.
ENAYETULLAH, I. ; SINHA, A.H.M. (n.y): Community Based Decentralized Composting – Experience of Waste Concern in Dhaka. In: Urban management innovation Case Study, no 3:Pilot Project – Medium Scale Vermi Composting of Vegetable Market Waste in Kathmandu Metropolitan City
This report discusses key activities implemented and achievements made to demonstrate vermi-composting for managing market waste.
KATHMANDU METROPOLITAN CITY ; PESTICIDE MONITOR NEPAL ; CLEAN ENERGY NEPAL (2005): Pilot Project – Medium Scale Vermi Composting of Vegetable Market Waste in Kathmandu Metropolitan City. (= Final Report ).Composting in the Philippines
Decentralized Composting in Developing Countries Financial and Technical Evaluation in the Case of Asmara City
This study was done in Asmara City in Eritrea by applying a combined approach of material flux analysis and process cost accounting to enable the comparison of different solid waste management systems (landfill, centralized compost plant and decentralized compost plants) regarding waste flows and costs.
MULLER, C. (2006): Decentralized Composting in Developing Countries Financial and Technical Evaluation in the Case of Asmara City. (= Diploma Thesis ). Zurich: ETH and EAWAGDoes Decentralized Composting Make Economic Sense?
Taking as an example the Eritrean city of Asmara, this paper presents the findings of a study that used a newly developed model to calculate waste flows and waste management costs, and to simulate various alternative scenarios.
ROTHENBERGER, S. (2007): Does Decentralized Composting Make Economic Sense? . Duebendorf: EAWAGTechnical and Economic Analysis of Compost Enterprises in Bangalore – India
This report includes detail analysis of two compost plants in Bangalore – KCDC and Terra Firma, as well as information on compost plants operated by several NGOs.
SHAH, E. SAMBARAJU, K. (1997): Technical and Economic Analysis of Compost Enterprises in Bangalore – India. (= UWEP Case Study Composting ). Gouda: WASTETechnical and Financial Analysis of Bhaktapur Compost Plant-Nepal
Pro-Poor Solid Waste Management for Secondary Cities and Small Towns of Asia and the Pacific
Since 2005, ESCAP, together with Waste Concern and local partners, tested and further refined the decentralized community based composting approach in Matale, Sri Lanka and in Quy Nhon, Viet Nam. This leaflet describes a project for further replicating this approach in the Asia Pacific Region.
UNESCAP (2009): Pro-Poor Solid Waste Management for Secondary Cities and Small Towns of Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok: United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the PacificWaste is Resource. Factsheet
Decentralized Composting in Bangladesh a Win-Win Situation for All Stakeholders
This paper describes the technical and financial parameters and marketing strategy of a decentralized compost plant located in Mirpur Dhaka, which was established by Waste Concern in 1995.
ZURBRUGG, C. ; DRESCHER, S. ; RYTZ, I. ; SINHA, A.H.M. ; ENAYETULLAH, I. (2004): Decentralized Composting in Bangladesh a Win-Win Situation for All Stakeholders. In: Resources Conservation and Recycling: Volume 43 , 281-292.Decentralised Composting An Option for Indian Cities? Report of a Workshop Held in Bangalore India, 4-5 June, 2002
The report discusses the findings of a study of 20 compost plants, ranging in size from household composting to large centralized composting facilities, in six cities in Southern India and an analysis based on technical, organizational, financial, marketing, institutional and social aspects. It also describes two compost plants in Bangalore.
ZURBRUGG, C. DRESCHER, S. PATEL, A.H. SHARATCHANDRA S.C. (2002): Decentralised Composting An Option for Indian Cities? Report of a Workshop Held in Bangalore India, 4-5 June, 2002. Duebendorf: EAWAGCan We Sell EcoSan Compost in Haiti?: A Market Analysis Report
With the support of Oxfam Great Britain, SOIL conducted a market assessment of compost and fertilizer sales in Haiti with a specific focus on identifying possible markets for the sale of compost generated by Ecosan projects.
SOIL (2011): Can We Sell EcoSan Compost in Haiti?: A Market Analysis Report. Sherburne: Sustainable Organic Integrated Livelihoods (SOIL) URL [Accessed: 22.02.2012]Delivering Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Services in an Uncertain Environment: Thermophilic Composting of Human Wastes in Uncertain Urban Environments
This paper describes the project of constructing a thermophilic composting site in Haiti after the earthquake in 2010. The composting facilities have treated over 500,000 gallons of human waste in the past three years, converting it to pathogen free compost, over 10,000 gallons of which has been sold for use in agriculture and reforestation projects. The experience of thermophilic composting in Haiti is unique in scale and duration and can have global implications for waste treatment in both emergency and development contexts.
KRAMER, S. PRENETA, N. KILBRIDE, A. (2013): Delivering Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Services in an Uncertain Environment: Thermophilic Composting of Human Wastes in Uncertain Urban Environments. A Case Study from Haiti. (= WECD International Conference , 36 ). Oakland: Sustainable Organic Integrated Livelihoods (SOIL) URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Delivering Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Services in an Uncertain Environment: Piloting Ecological Sanitation (EcoSan) in the Emergency Context of Port-au-Prince, Haiti, after the 2010 Earthquake
The earthquake that struck Haiti in January 2010 and the cholera epidemic that followed from October 2010, resulted in one of the largest humanitarian relief efforts in history. Many of the internally displaced persons camps were located in urban neighbourhoods with high groundwater, making onsite sanitation extremely difficult. In response to these unique conditions a small local organization, SOIL, partnered with Oxfam Great Britain to pilot urine diversion EcoSan toilets in camps throughout Port-au-Prince. This briefing paper covers this pilot project from March 2010 through March 2012. During that 2-year period, SOIL’s toilets served over 20,000 people and treated more than 400,000 gallons of human waste, converting it to rich compost.
KILBRIDE, A. KRAMER, S. PRENETA, N. (2013): Delivering Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Services in an Uncertain Environment: Piloting Ecological Sanitation (EcoSan) in the Emergency Context of Port-au-Prince, Haiti, after the 2010 Earthquake. (= WECD International Conference , 36 ). Oakland: Sustainable Organic Integrated Livelihoods (SOIL) URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Decentralised Composting for Cities of Low- and Middle-Income Countries – A User’s Manual
This book describes approaches and methods of composting on neighbourhood level in small-and middle-scale plants. It considers issues of waste collection, composting technologies, management systems, occupational health concerns, product quality, marketing and end-user demands.
DRESCHER, S. ZURBRUEGG, C. ENAYETULLAH, I. SINGHA, M.A.D. (2006): Decentralised Composting for Cities of Low- and Middle-Income Countries – A User’s Manual. Dhaka: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science (EAWAG), Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC) and Waste Concern URL [Accessed: 16.08.2010]Solid Waste Management. Lecture notes
This document provides an overview of the present state-of-the-art of solid waste production and management. It contains the characteristics of municipal solid waste and describes current waste treatment systems and technologies, as well as non-technical aspects like private sector involvement and financial arrangements.
EAWAG ; SANDEC (2008): Solid Waste Management. Lecture notes. (= Sandec Training Tool 1.0, Module 6 ). Duebendorf: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science (EAWAG), Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC) URL [Accessed: 08.04.2010]Innovations in Organic Waste Management
This presentation with 76 slides includes details on the community composting plants established and operated by Waste Concern in Bangladesh.
ENAYETULLAH, I. (2010): Innovations in Organic Waste Management. In: Workshop on Innovations for Scaling Up Organic Waste Management in South Asia, April 2-3, 2010:Decentralized Approach to Waste Management and Composting for Climate/co-benefits: Case of Bangladesh
This presentation with 47 slides provides case studies on decentralized approach of waste management being implemented at Bangladesh.
MD. SINHA, A.H.M. (2010): Decentralized Approach to Waste Management and Composting for Climate/co-benefits: Case of Bangladesh. (= Presentation made during Plenary Session 2 at International Consultative Meeting on Expanding Waste Management Service in Developing Countries, March 18-19 2010 Tokyo, Japan ).Decentralized Composting for Cities of Low-and Middle-Income Countries A Users’ Manual
Based on the experiences of Waste Concern on implementing decentralized composting facilities in Dhaka and other Asian Cities, this manual provides step-by-step guidelines on how to initiate and operate small-scale composting facilities in developing countries so as to turn waste into jobs and food security.
ROTHENBERGER, S. ZURBRUGG, C. ENAYETULLAH, I. SINHA, A.H.M. (2006): Decentralized Composting for Cities of Low-and Middle-Income Countries A Users’ Manual. Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC) at the Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science (EAWAG) and Waste Concern URL [Accessed: 11.08.2010]Developing Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan – Training Manual
This document is the fourth and last of the four sets of guidelines on ISWM. It focuses on how to develop an ISWM Plan by utilizing the information collected and generated with the help of the previous three sets of the guidelines. This document could also be used as a standalone document to build the capacity of experts and policy makers on planning for ISWM.
UNEP (2009): Developing Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan – Training Manual . (= ISWM Plan , 4 ). Osaka/Shiga, Japan: UNEP URL [Accessed: 29.10.2012]Organic Waste Management in Nepal
This presentation with 24 slides provides an overview of organic waste management in Nepal and includes examples of compost plants in Nepal.
TULADHAR, B. (2010): Organic Waste Management in Nepal. In: Workshop on Innovations for Scaling Up Organic Waste Management in South Asia, April 2-3, 2010:International Source Book on Environmentally Sound Technologies for Municipal Solid Waste Management
This Source Book is directed towards municipal solid waste management decision makers of developing countries and countries in transition, non-governmental organisations and community-based organizations involved in waste management. The book serves as a general reference guide to researchers, scientists, science and technology institutions and private industries on a global state-of-the-art on environmentally sound technologies for municipal solid waste management. It provides a list of information sources and overviews of practices in the world regions relating to environmentally sound management of municipal solid waste (waste reduction, collection and transfer, composting, incineration, landfills, special wastes, waste characterization, management and planning, training, public education and financing). Parts of the book can be viewed within this website.
UNEP ; IETC (1996): International Source Book on Environmentally Sound Technologies for Municipal Solid Waste Management. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and International Environmental Technology Centre Japan (IETC) URL [Accessed: 28.04.2010]Vermi-Composting advertisement
Vermi-composting Posters and Calendar
Community based Composting
This brochure describes composting and the “Community-based Waste Management and Composting Pilot Program,” implemented in urban slum and suburban areas of Bangladesh by Waste Concern, with support from Government of Bangladesh and UNICEF.
WASTE CONCERN Community based Composting. Dhaka: Waste ConcernWhat Happens When the Pit is Full?
This seminar report helps people responsible for the sustainable operation of on-site sanitation systems. It shows new developments in the field and contains a lot of detailed information about Faecal Sludge Management (FSM).
WINSA (2011): What Happens When the Pit is Full?. Developments in On-Site Faecal Sludge Management (FSM). Durban: Water Information Network South Afrika (WINSA) URL [Accessed: 06.10.2011]WASTE Advisers on Urban Environment and Development
This official site of WASTE Advisers on Urban Environment and Development, an organization based in Netherlands that specializes in solid waste management in ecological sanitation, has several documents on organic waste management and composting.
Waste Concern
This site describes the work of Waste Concern, an NGO based in Bangladesh, which has designed and implemented decentralized composting projects in several Asian Cities. It contains lots of information on how to do decentralised composting, as well as publications.
Bremen Overseas Research and Development Association (BORDA)
This is the homepage of the Bremen Overseas Research and Development Association (BORDA), which has contributed strongly to the development of decentralized wastewater treatment (i.e. DEWATS) the past decades.
Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO)
This is the official site of Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO), which has some information on home compost bins that are promoted in Nepal as well as other information on ENPHO.
Cornell Waste Management Institute
This is the official site of the Cornell Waste Management Institute, which serves the public through research, outreach, training, and technical assistance, with a focus on organic residuals.
How to Compost
This site is a mine of information on composting, for beginners as well as experts. Although most of the information is based on experiences from developed countries, it can be useful for developing countries as well.