Executive Summary
Composting at the household level is an important method for managing organic waste, which is normally the largest portion of household waste. Composting reduces the environmental impacts of waste and the produced compost is essential for improving soil fertility and structure. Besides the organic waste, composting can also be applied as secondary treatment for faeces and excreta collected in urine diversion and composting toilets. Degradation of organic material is a natural process, but composting allows us to control and accelerate this process by optimising the environment for microbial activity in the waste. Composting involves three stages: preparation of the waste by adjusting its size, moisture content and carbon-nitrogen ratio; degradation of waste in pits, piles, vessels or vermi-composting; and finally preparing finished compost by curing and screening.
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Introduction
Municipal solid waste management starts at the household level as households are the main source of waste in most urban areas. Waste minimisation and managing of waste as close to the source as possible are the two most important tools for reducing cost and improving efficiency of waste management systems. Thus, waste recycling at the household level is very important.
Organic matter such as food waste and yard waste are the main components of household waste. Other types of waste generated by households include inorganic components plastics, metals, glass, and inert materials such as soil. The portion of organic waste in household waste is generally higher in developing countries. In Nepal, for example, over 65 % of the total waste is organic waste.
Organic waste can be recycled at the household level to produce animal feed, biogas (i.e. anaerobic digestion small-scale; anaerobic digestion of organic waste) or compost. Among these options, composting is probably the most simple and common method for recycling household organic waste. Composting is the process of optimising the environment in the waste for microbial activity to decompose organic matter into valuable nutrients for the soil. Household composting involves the following three stages: waste preparation, degradation of waste and finishing of waste.
Waste preparation
Waste needs to be sorted and prepared for rapid degradation. This includes the following steps:
- Mix the waste to ensure that the carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N) is close to 25 – If the waste has too much carbon (normally brown waste such as dried leaves) it should be mixed with waste that has high nitrogen content (also known as green waste such as green grass clippings). Kitchen waste only normally has a suitable C:N ratio for composting.
- Chop the waste into small pieces. Large pieces of organic waste should be cut to small pieces to accelerate the composting process.
- Adjust the moisture content to about 50 per cent. A compost pile with 50% moisture should feel moist but water should not be dripping from it.
- Add a starter such as mature compost or effective microorganisms (EM) to speed up the composting process.
Degradation of Waste
Once the waste is converted into raw material for composting, the waste can be degraded using one of the methods mentioned below. The degradation process should be controlled by maintaining adequate temperature, moisture and aeration. There are different types of vessels for composting at this stage: composting in pits, composting in piles, in-vessel composting and vermi-composting.
Compost pits
One simple method for composting organic waste is to put it in pits and let it turn into compost over a period of six months or more. This process requires some space and time but the main benefit is that the waste is not visible as it is buried in the pit.
Compost piles
In this method, the waste is put in piles on the ground and regularly turned to allow aeration. The size of the pile may vary depending on the amount of waste and available space, but generally, it should be 1 to 2 m on each side and not more than 1.5 m in height. Chicken wire or wooden planks can be used to keep the pile together.
In-vessel composting
Compost can also be made in made in bags or bins. Normally holes are made in the bin or bags to allow aeration. Compost bins can be made from 100 to 200 litre plastic bins or barrels. In order to allow proper aeration, the bin is normally divided into two sections with a grill separating the two sections. Organic waste is put into the top section and allowed to degrade and once the compost is prepared it is removed from the bottom section. Because of the natural draught created in the bin by the grill and the holes, frequent turning of the waste is not required in this method. Municipalities and NGOs in countries such as Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka have been distributing compost bins to residents at subsidised rates to promote household composting (TULADHAR 2004; ALI 2004; LEKAMMUDIYANSE et al. 2009).
Vermi-composting
This involves the use of special types of earthworms to convert organic waste into worm casting, which is better than ordinary compost in improving soil’s structure and fertility. Vermi-composting is a simple and effective process that can be done indoors in the kitchen itself as it requires very little space and does not cause problems such as odour. Most common worm species for vermi-composting are Eisenia foetida, Lumbricus rubellus, and Eisenia hortensis (KOFF et al. 2007). The worms are placed in bedding made of loose materials such as coconut husk or shredded paper in a shallow box or tub and fed with soft organic matter such as kitchen waste. After about two months the compost can be harvested by putting the compost in the shape of a cone and scrapping off the top layers. The worms go to the bottom of the cone as they run away from light.
Finishing
Once the compost is prepared, it needs to be cured and screened before it is applied in the soil. The composting process is complete when (KOFF et al. 2007):
- The compost pile’s internal temperature has decreased to within 5 degrees of outside temperature.
- There is little or no discernible plant material left in the compost
- The compost has a dark brown, crumbly and rich look (similar to chocolate cake)
Once the compost is ready, it should be left for about a month for curing and then screened using a fine screen. The end product can now be used as soil amendment (use of compost). Any material that has not yet decomposed can go back into the compost pile or bin.
Composting of faeces and excreta and co-composting
Besides organic waste, composting can also be applied as a secondary treatment for faeces and excreta collected in UDDTs (urine diversion dehydration toilets) or vault composting toilets. The process is the same as the one that takes place in any pit-composting toilet (e.g. fossa alterna, arboloo). Composting can also be applied for the secondary treatment of sludge from twin-pits for pour-flush toilets or digest from anaerobic digesters or any other pre-treated sludge. Even better results can be achieved when organic wastes are composted together with faeces in order to optimise the C/N ratio. Co-composting can be done either in the toilet or off-site similar to pure household waste (in compost, compost piles, In-vessel composting Vermi-composting). See also VALLEY VIEW UNIVERSITY (2008) for more information.
Household composting is applicable in all households and most institutions that generate organic waste. Certain methods such as compost pits and compost piles require some outdoor space but compost bins can be placed on balconies and vermi-composting can be done indoors as well in an area less than 1m2. Household composting is especially beneficial for households with home gardens or indoor plants that can use the compost. Economic benefits of household composting include reduced cost of waste disposal and reduced cost of fertilisers.
Faeces and excreta form urine diversion dehydration toilets and composting toilets as well as sludge from twin-pits for pour-flush toilets or digestate from anaerobic digesters or any other pre-treated sludge can also be composted together with organic waste in order to sanitise these products and to increase composting yields. However, when composting such products, special care should be taken since the associated health risk is higher than for kitchen waste.
Sustainable Composting Case Studies and Guidelines for Developing Countries
This publication presents the findings of a research on “Promoting Composting as a Business for the Urban Poor” in the form of guidelines based on case studies from India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Ethiopia.
ALI, M. (2004): Sustainable Composting Case Studies and Guidelines for Developing Countries. Leicestershire: Water Engineering and Development Centre, Loughborough University URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Household Composting: Methods and Uses for Compost
This 5-page factsheet summarizes methods and uses of Compost.
KOFF, J.P. de LEE B.D. MICKELBART, M.V. (2007): Household Composting: Methods and Uses for Compost. (= Purdue Extension HENV-103-W ). Purdue: Purdue University URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Efficiency of the Household Compost bin as a Waste Management Technique in Sri Lanka
The paper presents the findings of a survey of 70 households using compost bins in Gampaha Municipality. During the study two compost samples from each of the bins were also tested.
LEKAMMUDIYANSE, L.M.M.U. ; GUNATILAKE, S.K. (2009): Efficiency of the Household Compost bin as a Waste Management Technique in Sri Lanka . In: International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS: Volume 10 , 89-94. URL [Accessed: 05.08.2010]User Survey Indicates the Success of “Saaga” Home Compost Bins
This article presents the findings of a survey of 76 home compost bin users in Kathmandu, which was done about one year after the compost bins were sold at a subsidized rate to residents by Kathmandu Metropolitan City by the municipality.
TULADHAR, B. (2004): User Survey Indicates the Success of “Saaga” Home Compost Bins. In: ENPHO Magazine 2004: URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Small scale composting of human faeces - in a Nutshell
This leaflet provides a summary on why and how to compost faeces.
VALLEY VIEW UNIVERSITY (2008): Small scale composting of human faeces - in a Nutshell. Hohenheim: University of Hohenheim (Germany), Berger Biotechnik, Valley View University Ghana URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Compost Barrel
This brochure describes the compost barrels, promoted in Bangladesh and explains how to use them. 4
WASTE CONCERN (n.y): Compost Barrel. Dhaka (Bangladesh): WASTE CONCERN URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Wasted Agriculture. The Use of Compost in Urban Agriculture
This report presents the findings of an inventory study of various organisations promoting urban agriculture to see if urban agriculture can be a market for compost made from solid waste.
HART, D. PLUIMERS, J. (1996): Wasted Agriculture. The Use of Compost in Urban Agriculture. (= UWEP Working Document 1 ). Gouda: WASTE URL [Accessed: 05.08.2010]Organic Waste. Options for small-scale resource recovery
This book is the first in a series on Urban Solid Waste Recovery, and represents an attempt to document the experiences of recycling activities in cities around the world. It covers the whole waste chain from municipal or agricultural generation of organic waste to different treatment methods, such as composting, co-composting, anaerobic digestion with production of biogas, and briquetting.
LARDINOIS, I. KLUNDERT v.d., A. (1993): Organic Waste. Options for small-scale resource recovery. (= Urban Solid Waste Series 1 ). Gouda: WASTE ConsultantsSolid Waste Management in the World’s Cities. Pre-publication presentation
This third publication in the series aims to capture the current trends in waste management with the assistance of 20 case studies from around the world.
UN-HABITAT (2010): Solid Waste Management in the World’s Cities. Pre-publication presentation. Nairobi: United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT) URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Manual for Composting at Domestic Level
This booklet describes the process of composting at the household level and provides instructions for building and operating a compost bin made from a 200-litre water tank.
NYACHHYON, B.L. MALLA, G. (2005): Manual for Composting at Domestic Level. Kathmandu: Zero Waste Nepal and Rotary Club of Mt. EverestHuman Excreta Treatment Technologies – prerequisites, constraints and performance
The thesis consists of three papers, the first of which investigates incineration of faecal matter as a treatment and sanitation method using a locally fabricated incinerator made of steel sheets. The second and third papers investigate composting of faeces and food waste at two size scales, using 78-litre and 216-litre wooden reactors.
NIWAGABA, C. (2007): Human Excreta Treatment Technologies – prerequisites, constraints and performance. (= Licentiate thesis ). Uppsala: Swedish Agricultural University (SLU), Department of Biometry and EngineeringEfficiency of the Household Compost bin as a Waste Management Technique in Sri Lanka
The paper presents the findings of a survey of 70 households using compost bins in Gampaha Municipality. During the study two compost samples from each of the bins were also tested.
LEKAMMUDIYANSE, L.M.M.U. ; GUNATILAKE, S.K. (2009): Efficiency of the Household Compost bin as a Waste Management Technique in Sri Lanka . In: International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS: Volume 10 , 89-94. URL [Accessed: 05.08.2010]Sustainable Composting Case Studies and Guidelines for Developing Countries
This publication presents the findings of a research on “Promoting Composting as a Business for the Urban Poor” in the form of guidelines based on case studies from India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Ethiopia.
ALI, M. (2004): Sustainable Composting Case Studies and Guidelines for Developing Countries. Leicestershire: Water Engineering and Development Centre, Loughborough University URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Vermicomposting. Guide H-164
Factsheet on the operation and maintenance of vermi-composts.
DICKERSON, G. (2004): Vermicomposting. Guide H-164. New Mexico: New Mexico State University (NMSU), Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture and, Home Economics URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Composting in the Tropics
This booklet describes the principles of composting with focus on the heap method.
HDRA (1998): Composting in the Tropics. The Organic Organisation URL [Accessed: 11.08.2010]Composting in the Tropics II
This booklet follows on from ‘Composting in the Tropics’, which concentrated especially the heap method. This second booklet looks at other methods of producing compost, including variations on the heap method and also describes practices suitable for different climates in the tropics, for example arid areas.
HRDA (1998): Composting in the Tropics II. The Organic Organisation URL [Accessed: 11.08.2010]Decentralised Composting in India – Lessons Learnt
The paper discusses the findings of a study of 20 compost plants, ranging in size from household composting to large centralised composting facilities, in Bangalore, Chennai, Pune and Mumbai.
ZURBRUGG, C. DRESCHER, S. PATEL, A.H. SHARATCHANDRA S.C. (2002): Decentralised Composting in India – Lessons Learnt. (= Paper presented at 28th WEDC Conference in Kolkata 18-22 November, 2002 ). Leicestershire: Water Engineering and Development Centre, Loughborough University URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]How to Select Appropriate Technical Solutions for Sanitation
The purpose of this guide is to assist local contracting authorities and their partners in identifying those sanitation technologies best suited to the different contexts that exist within their town. The first part of the guide contains a planning process and a set of criteria to be completed; these assist you in characterizing each area of intervention so that you are then in a position to identify the most appropriate technical solutions. The second part of the guide consists of technical factsheets which give a practical overview of the technical and economic characteristics, the operating principle and the pros and cons of the 29 sanitation technology options most commonly used in sub-Saharan Africa.
MONVOIS, J. GABERT, J. FRENOUX, C. GUILLAUME, M. (2010): How to Select Appropriate Technical Solutions for Sanitation. (= Six Methodological Guides for a Water and Sanitation Services' Development Strategy , 4 ). Cotonou and Paris: Partenariat pour le Développement Municipal (PDM) and Programme Solidarité Eau (pS-Eau) URL [Accessed: 19.10.2011]Compost Barrel
This brochure describes the compost barrels, promoted in Bangladesh and explains how to use them. 4
WASTE CONCERN (n.y): Compost Barrel. Dhaka (Bangladesh): WASTE CONCERN URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Methods of Using "Toilet Compost" in Agriculture
This document gives a simple overview over toilet compost, its preparation and fields of application.
MORGAN, P. (2010): Methods of Using "Toilet Compost" in Agriculture. Stockholm : Ecological Sanitation Research (EcoSanRes), Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Compost Bins as an Alternative Solution to the Problem of Household Waste Problem in Urban Areas
This paper describes a household composting project implemented by SEVENATHA in Dehiwala Mt. Levenia Municipal Council near Colombo in Sri Lanka with support from UNDP.
PREMAKUJMARA, D.G.H. (2000): Compost Bins as an Alternative Solution to the Problem of Household Waste Problem in Urban Areas. URL [Accessed: 05.08.2010]Home Compost Bins
This article describes the home compost bins that were promoted in Kathmandu.
TULADHAR, B. (2003): Home Compost Bins. PDFSustainable Composting: Some Realities – Experiences from Bangladesh
This paper tries to answer the following question: “How sustainable are the composting barrels in the slums of Dhaka, Bangladesh if the external support is withdrawn?”
YOUSUF, T.B. ALI, M. (2006): Sustainable Composting: Some Realities – Experiences from Bangladesh. (= CWG-WASH Workshop, 1-5 February Kolkata ).User Survey Indicates the Success of “Saaga” Home Compost Bins
This article presents the findings of a survey of 76 home compost bin users in Kathmandu, which was done about one year after the compost bins were sold at a subsidized rate to residents by Kathmandu Metropolitan City by the municipality.
TULADHAR, B. (2004): User Survey Indicates the Success of “Saaga” Home Compost Bins. In: ENPHO Magazine 2004: URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Vermi-Composting brings better yields and returns – A farmer shows the way
This is the case of a small farmer who chose to be different from the typical resource-poor farmers struggling to make a living in the degraded drylands. His deep ‘love for life’ has not only earned him a decent living, but more importantly, it has inspired many other farmers to emulate him.
AME FOUNDATION (2007): Vermi-Composting brings better yields and returns – A farmer shows the way. (= AMEF Case Study Series 6 ). Bangalore: AME Foundation URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Trash to Cash – Slum Dwellers make Money from cutting Greenhouse Gases
This article describes the success story of two “garbiologists” from Waste Concern, Bangladesh who designed project and concept on making cash from trash through carbon trading mechanism.
FCO (2009): Trash to Cash – Slum Dwellers make Money from cutting Greenhouse Gases. (= Climate Success ). Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Composting at Households in Kitgum Town, Uganda - Draft
A case study on household-level composition in Kitgum, Uganda. The project aims at using composting to develop practical operation and management strategies for peri-urban areas and to demonstrate the safe reuse of faces by co-composting them.
KINOBE, J. OLWENY, S. NIWAGABA, C. (2010): Composting at Households in Kitgum Town, Uganda - Draft. (= Susana Case Study ). Eschborn: Susana URL [Accessed: 16.08.2010]Solid Waste Management in Nepal. Facsheet
This 12-page factsheet reflects the existing management systems practiced in various areas of Nepal in managing solid waste and contains initiatives of Municipalities; national and local NGOs/CBOs; public and private entities. The paper helps to transfer the lessons and existing practices regarding solid waste management and encourages urban, peri-urban and emerging towns for similar initiatives in urban sanitation.
WATERAID NEPAL ; ENPHO (2008): Solid Waste Management in Nepal. Facsheet. Kathmandu: WaterAid Nepal Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO) URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Ecological Sanitation in Malawi
This illustrative presentation on ecological sanitation in Malawi, focuses on the concept of ecological sanitation, types of eco-toilets and basic methods of recycling nutrient from human excreta.
MORGAN, P. (2010): Ecological Sanitation in Malawi. Stockholm : Ecological Sanitation Research (EcoSanRes), Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) URL [Accessed: 31.05.2019]The ROSA Project
The ROSA project stands for Resource-Oriented Sanitation concepts for peri-urban areas in Africa. This Sustainable Sanitation Practice (SSP) issue contains the following contributions: 1. Introduction to the ROSA Project, 2. From Pilot Units to Large-Scale Implementation - Ethiopia, 3. Implementation of UDDTs at Schools - Kenya, 4. Urban Agriculture for Sanitation Promotion, 5. Operation an Maintenance in Practice, 6. Experiences from Strategic Sanitation Planning, 7. Main Findings and Main Achievements.
MUELLEGGER, E. ; LANGEGRABER, G. ; LECHNER, M. (2010): The ROSA Project. (= Sustainable Sanitation Practice , 4 ). Vienna: Ecosan Club URL [Accessed: 01.07.2013]Delivering Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Services in an Uncertain Environment: Thermophilic Composting of Human Wastes in Uncertain Urban Environments
This paper describes the project of constructing a thermophilic composting site in Haiti after the earthquake in 2010. The composting facilities have treated over 500,000 gallons of human waste in the past three years, converting it to pathogen free compost, over 10,000 gallons of which has been sold for use in agriculture and reforestation projects. The experience of thermophilic composting in Haiti is unique in scale and duration and can have global implications for waste treatment in both emergency and development contexts.
KRAMER, S. PRENETA, N. KILBRIDE, A. (2013): Delivering Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Services in an Uncertain Environment: Thermophilic Composting of Human Wastes in Uncertain Urban Environments. A Case Study from Haiti. (= WECD International Conference , 36 ). Oakland: Sustainable Organic Integrated Livelihoods (SOIL) URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Delivering Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Services in an Uncertain Environment: Piloting Ecological Sanitation (EcoSan) in the Emergency Context of Port-au-Prince, Haiti, after the 2010 Earthquake
The earthquake that struck Haiti in January 2010 and the cholera epidemic that followed from October 2010, resulted in one of the largest humanitarian relief efforts in history. Many of the internally displaced persons camps were located in urban neighbourhoods with high groundwater, making onsite sanitation extremely difficult. In response to these unique conditions a small local organization, SOIL, partnered with Oxfam Great Britain to pilot urine diversion EcoSan toilets in camps throughout Port-au-Prince. This briefing paper covers this pilot project from March 2010 through March 2012. During that 2-year period, SOIL’s toilets served over 20,000 people and treated more than 400,000 gallons of human waste, converting it to rich compost.
KILBRIDE, A. KRAMER, S. PRENETA, N. (2013): Delivering Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Services in an Uncertain Environment: Piloting Ecological Sanitation (EcoSan) in the Emergency Context of Port-au-Prince, Haiti, after the 2010 Earthquake. (= WECD International Conference , 36 ). Oakland: Sustainable Organic Integrated Livelihoods (SOIL) URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Solid Waste Management. Lecture notes
This document provides an overview of the present state-of-the-art of solid waste production and management. It contains the characteristics of municipal solid waste and describes current waste treatment systems and technologies, as well as non-technical aspects like private sector involvement and financial arrangements.
EAWAG ; SANDEC (2008): Solid Waste Management. Lecture notes. (= Sandec Training Tool 1.0, Module 6 ). Duebendorf: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science (EAWAG), Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC) URL [Accessed: 08.04.2010]Small scale composting of human faeces - in a Nutshell
This leaflet provides a summary on why and how to compost faeces.
VALLEY VIEW UNIVERSITY (2008): Small scale composting of human faeces - in a Nutshell. Hohenheim: University of Hohenheim (Germany), Berger Biotechnik, Valley View University Ghana URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Household Composting: Methods and Uses for Compost
This 5-page factsheet summarizes methods and uses of Compost.
KOFF, J.P. de LEE B.D. MICKELBART, M.V. (2007): Household Composting: Methods and Uses for Compost. (= Purdue Extension HENV-103-W ). Purdue: Purdue University URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Household Composting: Methods and Uses for Compost
This 5-page factsheet summarizes methods and uses of Compost.
KOFF, J.P. de LEE B.D. MICKELBART, M.V. (2007): Household Composting: Methods and Uses for Compost. (= Purdue Extension HENV-103-W ). Purdue: Purdue University URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Household Composting with Worms
This 4-page factsheet provides information on making composting by worms at household level.
KOFF, J.P. de LEE, B. MICKELBART, M.V. (2008): Household Composting with Worms. (= Home and Environment, HENV-104-W ). Purdue University URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Turn Spoil into Soil – A guide to Household Composting
This 8-page guide-book consists of information on need of composting and how to start composting at household level.
LAOIS COUNTY COUNCIL (n.y): Turn Spoil into Soil – A guide to Household Composting. URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Waste: A Source of Organic Fertilizer
Proper Use and Safe Handling of Ecosan By-Products
This poster illustrates how to use Ecosan toilets and handle faecal compost in a safe way.
NETWAS (n.y): Proper Use and Safe Handling of Ecosan By-Products. Kampala: Network for Water and Sanitation (NETWAS) URL [Accessed: 11.05.2019]Primary and Secondary Processing of Ecosan By-Products
This poster illustrates how to transform faecal waste to usable compost.
NETWAS (n.y): Primary and Secondary Processing of Ecosan By-Products. Kampala: Network for Water and Sanitation (NETWAS) URL [Accessed: 11.05.2019]Home Composting Brochure
The four-page brochure explains the basic of composting and how yard waste and food waste can be composted at home.
CORNELL UNIVERSITY (n.y): Home Composting Brochure. URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]Instructions for Compost Barrel
Options for Household Composting
How to Make compost - Poster
Vermi-composting - Poster
Askai Sticker
Compost Barrel
This brochure describes the compost barrels, promoted in Bangladesh and explains how to use them. 4
WASTE CONCERN (n.y): Compost Barrel. Dhaka (Bangladesh): WASTE CONCERN URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]WASTE Advisers on Urban Environment and Development
This official site of WASTE Advisers on Urban Environment and Development, an organization based in Netherlands that specializes in solid waste management in ecological sanitation, has several documents on organic waste management and composting.
Waste Concern
This site describes the work of Waste Concern, an NGO based in Bangladesh, which has designed and implemented decentralized composting projects in several Asian Cities. It contains lots of information on how to do decentralised composting, as well as publications.
Bremen Overseas Research and Development Association (BORDA)
This is the homepage of the Bremen Overseas Research and Development Association (BORDA), which has contributed strongly to the development of decentralized wastewater treatment (i.e. DEWATS) the past decades.
Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO)
This is the official site of Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO), which has some information on home compost bins that are promoted in Nepal as well as other information on ENPHO.
Cornell Waste Management Institute
This is the official site of the Cornell Waste Management Institute, which serves the public through research, outreach, training, and technical assistance, with a focus on organic residuals.
How to Compost
This site is a mine of information on composting, for beginners as well as experts. Although most of the information is based on experiences from developed countries, it can be useful for developing countries as well.
Home Composting Made Easy
This site is based on the book “Home Composting Made Easy,” which has sold more than one million copies in the US.