05 June 2019
Alternative versions to

"(Co-) composting (Large-scale)"

(Co-) composting (Large-scale)

Author/Compiled by
Eawag (Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology)
Bhushan Tuladhar (Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO))
Dorothee Spuhler (seecon international gmbh)

Executive Summary

Co-composting is the controlled aerobic degradation of organics, using more than one feedstock (faecal sludge and organic solid waste). As organic waste is normally the largest portion of municipal waste, composting systems can play an important role in managing waste as well as creating employment and producing a product that contributes towards food security in developing countries. Organic solid waste is collected from households and institutions and composted either at decentralised (community-based) or centralised composting plants. Pre-treated faecal sludge can be co-composted together with the solid. Faecal sludge has a high moisture and nitrogen content, while biodegradable solid waste is high in organic carbon and has good bulking properties (i.e., it allows air to flow and circulate). By combining the two, the benefits of each can be used to optimize the process and the product. Community-based decentralized composting systems can generally process about 2 to 50 tons per day and manual composting processes. Centralised composting facilities are capable of receiving 10 to 200 tons per day. There are two fundamental types of composting techniques: open or windrow composting, a slower process conducted outdoors with simple equipment, and the enclosed system composting, where composting is performed in a building, tank, box, container or vessel. Proper management of the plant and marketing of the compost are key factors to ensure the sustainability of such systems.

Advantages
Large-scale composting reduces the amount of waste that needs to be transported to final disposal sites, thus reducing the cost of solid waste management
Relatively straightforward to set up and maintain with appropriate training
Provides a valuable resource that can improve local agriculture and food production
Will encourage the use of organic farming and gardening and reduce the need for chemical fertilizers
A high removal of helminth eggs is possible (< 1 viable egg/g TS)
Can be built and repaired with locally available materials
Low capital and operating costs
No electrical energy required
Disadvantages
Requires a large land area (that is well located)
Long storage times
Requires expert design and operation by skilled personnel
Requires professional collection and marketing of the compost
Labour intensive
Compost is too bulky to be economically transported over long distances
Lack of effective marketing of compost can result in financial losses and closure of the plant
In Out

Faecal Sludge, Organic Solid Waste

Compost/Biosolids

Introduction

Factsheet Block Body

Solid waste composting for use as a soil amendment, fertiliser or growth medium is of prime importance in many countries (EAWAG/SANDEC 2008). Asian countries in particular have a long-standing tradition of making and using compost. In Western Europe, a range of modern technologies is applied to produce compost (EAWAG/SANDEC 2008). Organic matter such as food waste and yard waste are the main components of municipal waste in the developing world. Faecal sludge can also be composted after it has been dewatered (e.g. drying beds, thickening ponds, mechanical dewatering).

For effective management and sustainability, decentralised composting systems should be treated like business ventures that use waste as raw materials and produce compost as final product that needs to be sold to different market segments. Therefore, before starting a composting project, the existing political/legal, social, technical, institutional and economic environment that can affect the operation of the compost plant and the market for compost should be carefully analysed to prepare a business plan and financial projections.

Schematic of the Co-Compost. Source: TILLEY et al. (2014)
Schematic of the Co-Compost. Source: TILLEY et al. (2014)

 

There are two types of co-composting designs: open and in-vessel(bin or box composting) . Open composting can be separated in windrow composting where air exposure is enhanced, or tranch or pit composting (STRAUSS et al. 2003).

 

Open Composting

Open composting is a slow but simple process (DULAC 2001). In open windrow composting, the mixed material (sludge and solid waste) is piled into long heaps called windrows and left to decompose. Windrow piles are periodically turned to provide oxygen and ensure that all parts of the pile are subjected to the same heat treatment. Aeration is also ensured by the addition of bulky materials and passive or active ventilation (STRAUSS et al. 2003). Systems with active aeration by blowers are usually referred to as forced aeration systems and when heaps are seldom turned they are referred to as static piles. Sloped and sealed or impervious composting pads (the surface where the heaps are located) control the leachate with a surrounding drainage system.

Trench and pit systems are characterized by heaps, which are partly or fully contained under the soil surface (STRAUSS et al. 2003). This allows to save space and to reduce construction cost (in comparison to boxes). Structuring the heap with bulky material or turning is usually the choice for best aeration, although turning can be cumbersome when the heap is in a deep pit and leachate control is difficult in trench or pit composting (STRAUSS et al. 2003).

 

In-vessel composting 

The compost is placed in boxes made out of bricks, wood or mesh boxes with holes in between and a screen at the bottom. In-vessel composting requires controlled moisture and air supply, as well as mechanical mixing. Therefore, it is not generally appropriate for decentralized facilities but is less labour intensive than open composting . It also needs less space. But the the initial capital cost required for a box system is slightly higher.

Although the composting process seems like a simple, passive technology, a well-working facility requires careful planning and design to avoid failure. For effective management and sustainability, decentralized composting systems should be treated like business ventures that use waste as raw materials and produce compost as final product that needs to be sold to different market segments. Therefore, before starting a composting project, the existing political/legal, social, technical, institutional and economic environment that can affect the operation of the compost plant and the market for compost should be carefully analysed to prepare a business plan and financial projections.

Vermi-composting, which involves using special types of earthworms to convert organic waste into worm casting, can also be done in decentralized composting (ZURBRUGG et al., 2002). In a vermi-composting plant, the waste is first composted aerobically for about two weeks as in an ordinary plant. Then, the semi-decomposed waste is put in boxes with special types of worms, such as Eisenia foetida, Lumbricus rubellus, and Eisenia hortensis. Vermi-composting results in better quality compost, but the worms need more care than aerobic composting. For vermi-composting, the pile does not need turning, but the temperature and moisture needs to be suitable for the worms at all times to ensure their survival.

 

Decentralised composting

Decentralized waste management systems that maximize recycling can be appropriate systems for managing municipal waste in developing countries because waste minimisation and managing of waste as close to the source as possible are the two most important tools for reducing cost and improving efficiency of waste management systems. Scrap dealers generally collect inorganic waste such as plastics, metals, and glass. But organic waste is difficult to handle, store and transport. Therefore, decentralized community-based systems, such as small compost plants and biogas plants (see also anaerobic digestion of solid organic waste) are suitable for managing organic waste. Decentralised composting facilities will generally be in the range of 2 to 50 tons per day, depending on the size of the community and volume of compostable materials in the waste stream (UNEP/IETC 1996).

Decentralized Composting Process in Bangladesh and Screening compost at Kalpabriksha Compost Plant in Kathmandu. Source: WASTE CONCERN n.y. (left) and TULADHAR n.y. ENPHO (right).
Decentralized Composting Process in Bangladesh and Screening compost at Kalpabriksha Compost Plant in Kathmandu. Source: WASTE CONCERN n.y. (left) and TULADHAR n.y. ENPHO (right).

 

Centralised composting at municipal scale

Centralised composting facilities can receive up to 10 to 200 tons per day (UNEP/IETC 1996). Differences in scale, management, financing, and site selection distinguish municipal-scale composting form decentralised composting. Centralised composting plants require thus the involvement of engineering and professional designers and the involvement of all stakeholders.

Compost boxes made out of brick (left) and bamboo and wood (right). Source: ENPHO n.y.
Compost boxes made out of brick (left) and bamboo and wood (right). Source: ENPHO n.y.

 

Waste collection

Compost piles in maturation. Source: EAWAG/SANDEC (2008)
Compost piles in maturation. Source: EAWAG/SANDEC (2008)

 

Decentralised and centralised composting starts with waste collection. As waste collection is generally the most expensive and visible part of the waste management system, it needs to be properly planned and executed. Waste for compost plants can be collected from households, markets or institutions that generate organic waste. If possible, waste should be segregated at source before collection as to reduce the chances of having contaminants such as glass particles and heavy metals in the compost. Glass particles in the compost can severely hamper marketing of the compost (TULADHAR and BANIA, 1997) while toxic chemicals or heavy metals in the compost can damage the soil and contaminate the food chain as well. Along with waste collection, a service fee should also be charged to the waste generators so as to ensure the sustainability of the waste collection system as well as the compost plant. The amount of fee charged should depend on the cost of waste collection and composting and the willingness to pay.

Windrows which have been turned manually (left) and mechanical windrow turning (right). Source. ROUSE et al. (2008)
Windrows which have been turned manually (left) and mechanical windrow turning (right). Source. ROUSE et al. (2008)

 

Marketing of compost

In order to ensure the sustainability of the compost plant it is necessary to identify the market segments where the compost can be sold and then develop a marketing strategy to cater to these segments. The strategy should address the “4 Ps” of marketing — Product, Price, Place, and Promotion. “Product” refers to the characteristics and quality of the compost and the packaging, “price” refers to the pricing structure at the wholesale and retail levels, “place” refers to the distribution channel that connects the plant to the customers and “promotion” refers to the activities that makes the product visible and establishes it as a credible brand.

Compost bags ready for the market. Source: ROUSE et al. (2008)
Compost bags ready for the market. Source: ROUSE et al. (2008)

 

Design considerations

Factsheet Block Body

The facility should be located close to the sources of organic waste and faecal sludge to minimize transport costs, but still at a distance away from homes and businesses to minimize nuisances. The total land area required for a 3 ton per day compost plant is about 810 m2 for an open system and 770 m2 for an in-vessel system. This includes space for sorting, composting, screening and bagging, storage of compost and rejects, office sanitary facilities and a buffer zone (ROTHENBERGER et al., 2006). Depending on the climate and available space, the facility may be covered to prevent excess evaporation and/or provide protection from rain and wind.

At the compost plant, the waste is first sorted to remove contaminants, mixed with additives if necessary to keep the carbon to nitrogen ratio (C/N) between 25 and 40, and then placed in the windrows, boxes or trenches. Key factors affecting the biological decomposition processes of composting and/or the resulting compost quality (STRAUS et al. 2003) are: 

  • Carbon to nitrogen ratio (C/N)
  • Moisture content
  • Oxygen supply, aeration
  • Particle size
  • pH
  • Temperature
  • Turning frequency
  • Microorganisms and invertebrates
  • Control of pathogens
  • Degree of decomposition
  • Nitrogen conservation

 

Ratios for co-composting: For dewatered sludge, a ratio of 1:2 to 1:3 of sludge to solid waste should be used. Liquid sludge (TS of 5 %) should be used at a ratio of 1:5 to 1:10 of sludge to solid waste (STRAUSS et al. 2003; OLUFUNKE & KONE 2009).

Windrow piles should be at least 1 m high and insulated with compost or soil to promote an even distribution of heat inside the pile. To ensure aerobic conditions, the pile should be turned twice a week for the first two weeks and then once every 10 days. The temperature of the pile should increase to about 65ºC in the first week and then go down to 40 ºC over the next few weeks. After about 21 to 60 days (UNEP/IETC 1996), the composting process enters the maturing or curing phase when the pile should be left without turning for some weeks up to a year depending on the local conditions. Then the compost is screened and packed. Nutrients or other additives may be added to the compost to improve its quality or make it more attractive for the buyers.

Vermi-composting, which involves using special types of earthworms to convert organic waste into worm casting, can also be done in decentralized composting (ZURBRUGG et al., 2002). In a vermi-composting plant, the waste is first composted aerobically for about two weeks as in an ordinary plant. Then, the semi-decomposed waste is put in boxes with special types of worms, such as Eisenia foetida, Lumbricus rubellus, and Eisenia hortensis. Vermi-composting results in better quality compost, but the worms need more care than aerobic composting. For vermi-composting, the pile does not need to be turned, but the temperature and moisture needs to be suitable for the worms at all times to ensure their survival.

Health aspects/acceptance

Factsheet Block Body

Maintaining the temperature in the pile between 55 and 60°C can reduce the pathogen load in sludge to a level safe to touch and work with. Although the finished compost can be safely handled, care should be taken when dealing with the sludge, regardless of the previous treatment. If the material is found to be dusty, workers should wear protective clothing and use appropriate respiratory equipment. Proper ventilation and dust control are important.

Operation & maintenance

Factsheet Block Body

The mixture must be carefully designed so that it has the proper C:N ratio, moisture and oxygen content. If facilities exist, it would be useful to monitor helminth egg inactivation as a proxy measure of sterilization. 

A well-trained staff is necessary for the operation and maintenance of the facility. Maintenance staff must carefully monitor the quality of the input material, and keep track of the inflows, outflows, turning schedules, and maturing times to ensure a high quality product. Forced aeration systems must be carefully controlled and monitored.

Turning must be periodically done with either a front-end loader or by hand. Robust grinders for shredding large pieces of solid waste (i.e., small branches and coconut shells) and pile turners help to optimize the process, reduce manual labour, and ensure a more homogenous end product.

Applicability

A co-composting facility is only appropriate when there is an available source of well-sorted biodegradable solid waste. Also space is required for setting up a compost plant (about 800 m2 for a 3 ton per day plant) and a private entrepreneur or NGO with the necessary technical and managerial skills is willing to manage the plant in a professional manner. 

Solid waste containing plastics and garbage must first be sorted. When carefully done, co-composting can produce a clean, pleasant, beneficial soil conditioner. 

Since moisture plays an important role in the composting process, covered facilities are especially recommended where there is heavy rainfall. 

Apart from technical considerations, composting only makes sense if there is a demand for the product (from paying customers). In order to find buyers, a consistent and good quality compost has to be produced; this depends on good initial sorting and a well-controlled thermophilic process.

Library References

Solid Waste Management. Lecture notes

This document provides an overview of the present state-of-the-art of solid waste production and management. It contains the characteristics of municipal solid waste and describes current waste treatment systems and technologies, as well as non-technical aspects like private sector involvement and financial arrangements.

EAWAG ; SANDEC (2008): Solid Waste Management. Lecture notes. (= Sandec Training Tool 1.0, Module 6 ). Duebendorf: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science (EAWAG), Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC) URL [Accessed: 08.04.2010]

Composting and Its Applicability in Developing Countries

This informal paper argues that composting should be a more widespread practice, especially in developing countries. It reviews past composting experiences and provides an outline for municipal managers to use when evaluating composting programs within an integrated municipal waste management system.

HOORNWEG, D. THOMAS, L. OTTEN, L. (2000): Composting and Its Applicability in Developing Countries. (= Urban Waste Management Working Paper Series , 8 ). Washington, D.C.: The World Bank URL [Accessed: 05.06.2019]

Helminth Eggs Inactivation Efficiency by Faecal Sludge Dewatering and Co-Composting in Tropical Climates

This study investigates helminth eggs removal and inactivation efficiency in a treatment process combining faecal sludge (FS) dewatering and subsequent co-composting with organic solid waste as a function of windrow turning frequency.

KONE, D. ; COFIE, O. ; ZURBRUEGG, C. ; GALLIZZI, K. ; MOSER, D. ; DRESCHER, S. ; STRAUSS, M. (2007): Helminth Eggs Inactivation Efficiency by Faecal Sludge Dewatering and Co-Composting in Tropical Climates. In: Water Research: Volume 41 , 4397-4402.

Integrated Resource Recovery. The Co-Composting of Domestic Solid and Human Wastes

This report a valuable reference for decision makers and planners on co-composting when addressing waste management and resource recovery issues in the developing countries.

OBENG, L. A. WRIGHT, F. W. (1987): Integrated Resource Recovery. The Co-Composting of Domestic Solid and Human Wastes. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank and UNDP URL [Accessed: 21.07.2014]

Co-composting faecal sludge & organic solid waste, Kumasi, Ghana

This project aimed to gain scientific knowledge on the technical, socio-economical and operational aspects of co-composting (organic solid waste and faecal material). Dried faecal sludge (drying bed) is co-composted with the organic fraction of solid waste. The final product is used as compost for urban and periurban agriculture.

OLUFUNKE, C. DOULAYE, K. (2009): Co-composting faecal sludge & organic solid waste, Kumasi, Ghana. (= SuSanA - Case Studies ). Eschborn: Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA) URL [Accessed: 22.05.2012]

Decentralized Composting for Cities of Low-and Middle-Income Countries A Users’ Manual

Based on the experiences of Waste Concern on implementing decentralized composting facilities in Dhaka and other Asian Cities, this manual provides step-by-step guidelines on how to initiate and operate small-scale composting facilities in developing countries so as to turn waste into jobs and food security.

ROTHENBERGER, S. ZURBRUGG, C. ENAYETULLAH, I. SINHA, A.H.M. (2006): Decentralized Composting for Cities of Low-and Middle-Income Countries A Users’ Manual. Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC) at the Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science (EAWAG) and Waste Concern URL [Accessed: 11.08.2010]

Marketing Compost. A Guide for Compost Producers in Low and Middle-Income Countries

This guide describes a marketing approach to composting, and is intended to help compost producers run more viable initiatives by unlocking the value of their product. The handbook does not cover everything there is to know about marketing, but starts with the basics and introduces the key principles and techniques. These include understanding the ‘marketing environment’, identifying appropriate target customer groups, and developing and promoting products to suit the market.

ROUSE ROTHENBERGER, S. ZURBRUEGG, C. (2008): Marketing Compost. A Guide for Compost Producers in Low and Middle-Income Countries. Duebendorf: Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC), Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science (EAWAG) URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

Faecal Sludge Management

This is the first book to compile the current state of knowledge on faecal sludge management. It addresses the organization of the entire faecal sludge management service chain, from the collection and transport of sludge, to the current state of knowledge of treatment options, and the final end use or disposal of treated sludge. It presents an integrated approach that brings together technology, management, and planning, based on Sandec’s 20 years of experience in the field. It also discusses important factors to consider when evaluating and upscaling new treatment technology options. The book is designed for undergraduate and graduate students, engineers, and practitioners in the field who have some basic knowledge of environmental and/or wastewater engineering.

STRANDE, L. ; RONTELTAP, M. ; BRDJANOVIC, D. (2014): Faecal Sludge Management. Systems Approach for Implementation and Operation. London: IWA Publishing URL [Accessed: 16.07.2014]

Co-composting of Faecal Sludge and Municipal Organic Waste

The document gives an overview on the combined composting of (faecal) sludges and organic solid waste based on a pilot project in Kumasi, Ghana. Results of the investigation should help the city’s waste management department to develop its biosolids management strategy and enable the project team to develop guidelines for planners and engineers on the option of co-composting.

STRAUSS, M. DRESCHER, S. ZURBRUEGG, C. MONTANGERO, A. OLUFUNKE, C. DRECHSEL, P. (2003): Co-composting of Faecal Sludge and Municipal Organic Waste. Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science (EAWAG), Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC) and International Water Management Institute (IWMI) URL [Accessed: 05.06.2019]

Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. 2nd Revised Edition

This compendium gives a systematic overview on different sanitation systems and technologies and describes a wide range of available low-cost sanitation technologies.

TILLEY, E., ULRICH L., LÜTHI, C., REYMOND P. and ZURBRÜGG C. (2014): Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. 2nd Revised Edition. Duebendorf, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag) URL [Accessed: 03.05.2023] PDF

International Source Book on Environmentally Sound Technologies for Municipal Solid Waste Management

This Source Book is directed towards municipal solid waste management decision makers of developing countries and countries in transition, non-governmental organisations and community-based organizations involved in waste management. The book serves as a general reference guide to researchers, scientists, science and technology institutions and private industries on a global state-of-the-art on environmentally sound technologies for municipal solid waste management. It provides a list of information sources and overviews of practices in the world regions relating to environmentally sound management of municipal solid waste (waste reduction, collection and transfer, composting, incineration, landfills, special wastes, waste characterization, management and planning, training, public education and financing). Parts of the book can be viewed within this website.

UNEP ; IETC (1996): International Source Book on Environmentally Sound Technologies for Municipal Solid Waste Management. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and International Environmental Technology Centre Japan (IETC) URL [Accessed: 28.04.2010]

Decentralised Composting An Option for Indian Cities? Report of a Workshop Held in Bangalore India, 4-5 June, 2002

The report discusses the findings of a study of 20 compost plants, ranging in size from household composting to large centralized composting facilities, in six cities in Southern India and an analysis based on technical, organizational, financial, marketing, institutional and social aspects. It also describes two compost plants in Bangalore.

ZURBRUGG, C. DRESCHER, S. PATEL, A.H. SHARATCHANDRA S.C. (2002): Decentralised Composting An Option for Indian Cities? Report of a Workshop Held in Bangalore India, 4-5 June, 2002. Duebendorf: EAWAG
Further Readings

Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies (Arabic)

This is the Arabic version of the Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. The Compendium gives a systematic overview on different sanitation systems and technologies and describes a wide range of available low-cost sanitation technologies.

TILLEY, E. ULRICH, L. LUETHI, C. REYMOND, P. SCHERTENLEIB, R. ZURBRUEGG, C. (2014): Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies (Arabic). 2nd Revised Edition. Duebendorf, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag) PDF

Faecal Sludge Management.

This issue presents studies from different regions (Bangladesh, Cameroon, Burkina Faso) that mainly show the non-existence of faecal sludge management. Additionally, the last paper describes a new technological solution (LaDePa) for producing hygienically safe organic fertiliser from sludge from ventilated improved pit toilets (VIPs).

ECOSAN CLUB (2012): Faecal Sludge Management.. (= Sustainable Sanitation Practice , 13 ). Vienna: Ecosan Club URL [Accessed: 16.10.2012]

Faecal Sludge Management

This is the first book to compile the current state of knowledge on faecal sludge management. It addresses the organization of the entire faecal sludge management service chain, from the collection and transport of sludge, to the current state of knowledge of treatment options, and the final end use or disposal of treated sludge. It presents an integrated approach that brings together technology, management, and planning, based on Sandec’s 20 years of experience in the field. It also discusses important factors to consider when evaluating and upscaling new treatment technology options. The book is designed for undergraduate and graduate students, engineers, and practitioners in the field who have some basic knowledge of environmental and/or wastewater engineering.

STRANDE, L. ; RONTELTAP, M. ; BRDJANOVIC, D. (2014): Faecal Sludge Management. Systems Approach for Implementation and Operation. London: IWA Publishing URL [Accessed: 16.07.2014]

Decentralized Composting for Cities of Low-and Middle-Income Countries A Users’ Manual

Based on the experiences of Waste Concern on implementing decentralized composting facilities in Dhaka and other Asian Cities, this manual provides step-by-step guidelines on how to initiate and operate small-scale composting facilities in developing countries so as to turn waste into jobs and food security.

ROTHENBERGER, S. ZURBRUGG, C. ENAYETULLAH, I. SINHA, A.H.M. (2006): Decentralized Composting for Cities of Low-and Middle-Income Countries A Users’ Manual. Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC) at the Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science (EAWAG) and Waste Concern URL [Accessed: 11.08.2010]

Marketing Compost. A Guide for Compost Producers in Low and Middle-Income Countries

This guide describes a marketing approach to composting, and is intended to help compost producers run more viable initiatives by unlocking the value of their product. The handbook does not cover everything there is to know about marketing, but starts with the basics and introduces the key principles and techniques. These include understanding the ‘marketing environment’, identifying appropriate target customer groups, and developing and promoting products to suit the market.

ROUSE ROTHENBERGER, S. ZURBRUEGG, C. (2008): Marketing Compost. A Guide for Compost Producers in Low and Middle-Income Countries. Duebendorf: Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC), Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science (EAWAG) URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

Co-composting of Faecal Sludge and Solid Waste

This report summarises the technical and operational aspects of the co-composting process (design and mode of operation) that were investigated at a pilot plant in Kumasi (Ghana) between February and June 2002.

IWMI ; SANDEC (2002): Co-composting of Faecal Sludge and Solid Waste. Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science (EAWAG), Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC) and International Water Management Institute (IWMI) URL [Accessed: 11.08.2010]

Composting and Its Applicability in Developing Countries

This informal paper argues that composting should be a more widespread practice, especially in developing countries. It reviews past composting experiences and provides an outline for municipal managers to use when evaluating composting programs within an integrated municipal waste management system.

HOORNWEG, D. THOMAS, L. OTTEN, L. (2000): Composting and Its Applicability in Developing Countries. (= Urban Waste Management Working Paper Series , 8 ). Washington, D.C.: The World Bank URL [Accessed: 05.06.2019]

Sustainable Composting Case Studies and Guidelines for Developing Countries

This publication presents the findings of a research on “Promoting Composting as a Business for the Urban Poor” in the form of guidelines based on case studies from India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Ethiopia.

ALI, M. (2004): Sustainable Composting Case Studies and Guidelines for Developing Countries. Leicestershire: Water Engineering and Development Centre, Loughborough University URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]

Co-composting of Faecal Sludge and Municipal Organic Waste

The document gives an overview on the combined composting of (faecal) sludges and organic solid waste based on a pilot project in Kumasi, Ghana. Results of the investigation should help the city’s waste management department to develop its biosolids management strategy and enable the project team to develop guidelines for planners and engineers on the option of co-composting.

STRAUSS, M. DRESCHER, S. ZURBRUEGG, C. MONTANGERO, A. OLUFUNKE, C. DRECHSEL, P. (2003): Co-composting of Faecal Sludge and Municipal Organic Waste. Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science (EAWAG), Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC) and International Water Management Institute (IWMI) URL [Accessed: 05.06.2019]

Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. 2nd Revised Edition

This compendium gives a systematic overview on different sanitation systems and technologies and describes a wide range of available low-cost sanitation technologies.

TILLEY, E., ULRICH L., LÜTHI, C., REYMOND P. and ZURBRÜGG C. (2014): Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. 2nd Revised Edition. Duebendorf, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag) URL [Accessed: 03.05.2023] PDF

The Organic Waste Flow in Integrated Sustainable Waste Management. Tools for Decision-makers

This publication is part of Integrated Sustainable Waste Management - A Set of Five Tools for Decision-makers - Experiences from the Urban Waste Expertise Programme (1995 - 2001). It is designed to identify and understand the role that composting plays in integrated solid waste management systems. This is important since the organic waste stream is the largest waste component in most developing countries and the one that has the least chance of being recovered without intervention.

DULAC, N. (2001): The Organic Waste Flow in Integrated Sustainable Waste Management. Tools for Decision-makers. Gouda: WASTE URL [Accessed: 11.08.2010]

A Directory of Environmentally Sound Technologies for the Integrated Management of Solid, Liquid and Hazardous Waste for Small Island Developing States (SIDS) in the Pacific Region

This directory is part of UNEP collaboration with SIDS on the implementation of the Waste Management chapter of the Barbados Programme of Action. It focuses primarily on proven sound environmental technologies for solid, liquid and hazardous waste management plus those currently successfully being used in SIDS within the Pacific Region.

UNEP (2002): A Directory of Environmentally Sound Technologies for the Integrated Management of Solid, Liquid and Hazardous Waste for Small Island Developing States (SIDS) in the Pacific Region. The Hague: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) URL [Accessed: 28.03.2012]

Integrated Resource Recovery. The Co-Composting of Domestic Solid and Human Wastes

This report a valuable reference for decision makers and planners on co-composting when addressing waste management and resource recovery issues in the developing countries.

OBENG, L. A. WRIGHT, F. W. (1987): Integrated Resource Recovery. The Co-Composting of Domestic Solid and Human Wastes. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank and UNDP URL [Accessed: 21.07.2014]

Decentralised Composting in India – Lessons Learnt

The paper discusses the findings of a study of 20 compost plants, ranging in size from household composting to large centralised composting facilities, in Bangalore, Chennai, Pune and Mumbai.

ZURBRUGG, C. DRESCHER, S. PATEL, A.H. SHARATCHANDRA S.C. (2002): Decentralised Composting in India – Lessons Learnt. (= Paper presented at 28th WEDC Conference in Kolkata 18-22 November, 2002 ). Leicestershire: Water Engineering and Development Centre, Loughborough University URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]

How to Select Appropriate Technical Solutions for Sanitation

The purpose of this guide is to assist local contracting authorities and their partners in identifying those sanitation technologies best suited to the different contexts that exist within their town. The first part of the guide contains a planning process and a set of criteria to be completed; these assist you in characterizing each area of intervention so that you are then in a position to identify the most appropriate technical solutions. The second part of the guide consists of technical factsheets which give a practical overview of the technical and economic characteristics, the operating principle and the pros and cons of the 29 sanitation technology options most commonly used in sub-Saharan Africa.

MONVOIS, J. GABERT, J. FRENOUX, C. GUILLAUME, M. (2010): How to Select Appropriate Technical Solutions for Sanitation. (= Six Methodological Guides for a Water and Sanitation Services' Development Strategy , 4 ). Cotonou and Paris: Partenariat pour le Développement Municipal (PDM) and Programme Solidarité Eau (pS-Eau) URL [Accessed: 19.10.2011]

Full-Chain Sanitation Services That Last

This paper sets out a framework for the delivery of non-sewered sanitation services that last, are accessible to all and are at scale. The framework is based on IRC International Water and Sanitation’s (IRC) experience and lessons learnt from its engagement in non-sewered sanitation service at scale.

VERHAGEN, J. CARRASCO, M. (2013): Full-Chain Sanitation Services That Last. Non-Sewered Sanitation Services. The Hague: International Water and Sanitation Center (IRC) URL [Accessed: 03.06.2019]

Sludge Treatment and Disposal

Sludge Treatment and Disposal is the sixth volume in the series Biological Wastewater Treatment. The book covers in a clear and informative way the sludge characteristics, production, treatment (thickening, dewatering, stabilisation, pathogens removal) and disposal (land application for agricultural purposes, sanitary landfills, landfarming and other methods). Environmental and public health issues are also fully described.

ANDREOLI, C.V. ; SPERLING, M. von ; FERNANDES, F. (2007): Sludge Treatment and Disposal. (= Biological Wastewater Treatment Series , 6 ). London: International Water Association (IWA) Publishing URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]
Case Studies

Decentralised Composting: Lessons Learnt and Future Potentials for Meeting the Millennium Development Goals

This paper summarises the findings of SANDEC’s research programme on decentralized composting. It presents the strengths and weaknesses and provides indicators for sustainable decentralised composting schemes.

DRESCHER, S. ZURBRUGG, C. (2006): Decentralised Composting: Lessons Learnt and Future Potentials for Meeting the Millennium Development Goals. (= CWG-WASH Workshop, 1-5 February 2006 ). Kolkata: Collaborative Working Group on Solid Waste Management

Co-composting faecal sludge & organic solid waste, Kumasi, Ghana

This project aimed to gain scientific knowledge on the technical, socio-economical and operational aspects of co-composting (organic solid waste and faecal material). Dried faecal sludge (drying bed) is co-composted with the organic fraction of solid waste. The final product is used as compost for urban and periurban agriculture.

OLUFUNKE, C. DOULAYE, K. (2009): Co-composting faecal sludge & organic solid waste, Kumasi, Ghana. (= SuSanA - Case Studies ). Eschborn: Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA) URL [Accessed: 22.05.2012]

Pilot Project – Medium Scale Vermi Composting of Vegetable Market Waste in Kathmandu Metropolitan City

This report discusses key activities implemented and achievements made to demonstrate vermi-composting for managing market waste.

KATHMANDU METROPOLITAN CITY ; PESTICIDE MONITOR NEPAL ; CLEAN ENERGY NEPAL (2005): Pilot Project – Medium Scale Vermi Composting of Vegetable Market Waste in Kathmandu Metropolitan City. (= Final Report ).

Composting in the Philippines

This report analyzes the technical and financial aspects of Santa Maria Compost Plant operated by AWARE Inc.

LAPID, D.G. ANCHEPA, C.C. VILLAREAL, T.J. (1996): Composting in the Philippines. (= UWEP Case Study Composting ). Gouda: WASTE

Decentralized Composting in Developing Countries Financial and Technical Evaluation in the Case of Asmara City

This study was done in Asmara City in Eritrea by applying a combined approach of material flux analysis and process cost accounting to enable the comparison of different solid waste management systems (landfill, centralized compost plant and decentralized compost plants) regarding waste flows and costs.

MULLER, C. (2006): Decentralized Composting in Developing Countries Financial and Technical Evaluation in the Case of Asmara City. (= Diploma Thesis ). Zurich: ETH and EAWAG

Pro-Poor Solid Waste Management for Secondary Cities and Small Towns of Asia and the Pacific

Since 2005, ESCAP, together with Waste Concern and local partners, tested and further refined the decentralized community based composting approach in Matale, Sri Lanka and in Quy Nhon, Viet Nam. This leaflet describes a project for further replicating this approach in the Asia Pacific Region.

UNESCAP (2009): Pro-Poor Solid Waste Management for Secondary Cities and Small Towns of Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok: United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

Waste is Resource. Factsheet

This factsheet shares the experiences of implementation of community based solid waste management project at Dhaka. It describes summary of project activities including major lessons learnt, impact and replicability of the project.

WASTE CONCERN ; UNDP (2005): Waste is Resource. Factsheet.

Decentralized Composting in Bangladesh a Win-Win Situation for All Stakeholders

This paper describes the technical and financial parameters and marketing strategy of a decentralized compost plant located in Mirpur Dhaka, which was established by Waste Concern in 1995.

ZURBRUGG, C. ; DRESCHER, S. ; RYTZ, I. ; SINHA, A.H.M. ; ENAYETULLAH, I. (2004): Decentralized Composting in Bangladesh a Win-Win Situation for All Stakeholders. In: Resources Conservation and Recycling: Volume 43 , 281-292.

Decentralised Composting An Option for Indian Cities? Report of a Workshop Held in Bangalore India, 4-5 June, 2002

The report discusses the findings of a study of 20 compost plants, ranging in size from household composting to large centralized composting facilities, in six cities in Southern India and an analysis based on technical, organizational, financial, marketing, institutional and social aspects. It also describes two compost plants in Bangalore.

ZURBRUGG, C. DRESCHER, S. PATEL, A.H. SHARATCHANDRA S.C. (2002): Decentralised Composting An Option for Indian Cities? Report of a Workshop Held in Bangalore India, 4-5 June, 2002. Duebendorf: EAWAG

Can We Sell EcoSan Compost in Haiti?: A Market Analysis Report

With the support of Oxfam Great Britain, SOIL conducted a market assessment of compost and fertilizer sales in Haiti with a specific focus on identifying possible markets for the sale of compost generated by Ecosan projects.

SOIL (2011): Can We Sell EcoSan Compost in Haiti?: A Market Analysis Report. Sherburne: Sustainable Organic Integrated Livelihoods (SOIL) URL [Accessed: 22.02.2012]

Delivering Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Services in an Uncertain Environment: Thermophilic Composting of Human Wastes in Uncertain Urban Environments

This paper describes the project of constructing a thermophilic composting site in Haiti after the earthquake in 2010. The composting facilities have treated over 500,000 gallons of human waste in the past three years, converting it to pathogen free compost, over 10,000 gallons of which has been sold for use in agriculture and reforestation projects. The experience of thermophilic composting in Haiti is unique in scale and duration and can have global implications for waste treatment in both emergency and development contexts.

KRAMER, S. PRENETA, N. KILBRIDE, A. (2013): Delivering Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Services in an Uncertain Environment: Thermophilic Composting of Human Wastes in Uncertain Urban Environments. A Case Study from Haiti. (= WECD International Conference , 36 ). Oakland: Sustainable Organic Integrated Livelihoods (SOIL) URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]

Delivering Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Services in an Uncertain Environment: Piloting Ecological Sanitation (EcoSan) in the Emergency Context of Port-au-Prince, Haiti, after the 2010 Earthquake

The earthquake that struck Haiti in January 2010 and the cholera epidemic that followed from October 2010, resulted in one of the largest humanitarian relief efforts in history. Many of the internally displaced persons camps were located in urban neighbourhoods with high groundwater, making onsite sanitation extremely difficult. In response to these unique conditions a small local organization, SOIL, partnered with Oxfam Great Britain to pilot urine diversion EcoSan toilets in camps throughout Port-au-Prince. This briefing paper covers this pilot project from March 2010 through March 2012. During that 2-year period, SOIL’s toilets served over 20,000 people and treated more than 400,000 gallons of human waste, converting it to rich compost.

KILBRIDE, A. KRAMER, S. PRENETA, N. (2013): Delivering Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Services in an Uncertain Environment: Piloting Ecological Sanitation (EcoSan) in the Emergency Context of Port-au-Prince, Haiti, after the 2010 Earthquake. (= WECD International Conference , 36 ). Oakland: Sustainable Organic Integrated Livelihoods (SOIL) URL [Accessed: 01.06.2019]
Training Material

Decentralised Composting for Cities of Low- and Middle-Income Countries – A User’s Manual

This book describes approaches and methods of composting on neighbourhood level in small-and middle-scale plants. It considers issues of waste collection, composting technologies, management systems, occupational health concerns, product quality, marketing and end-user demands.

DRESCHER, S. ZURBRUEGG, C. ENAYETULLAH, I. SINGHA, M.A.D. (2006): Decentralised Composting for Cities of Low- and Middle-Income Countries – A User’s Manual. Dhaka: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science (EAWAG), Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC) and Waste Concern URL [Accessed: 16.08.2010]

Solid Waste Management. Lecture notes

This document provides an overview of the present state-of-the-art of solid waste production and management. It contains the characteristics of municipal solid waste and describes current waste treatment systems and technologies, as well as non-technical aspects like private sector involvement and financial arrangements.

EAWAG ; SANDEC (2008): Solid Waste Management. Lecture notes. (= Sandec Training Tool 1.0, Module 6 ). Duebendorf: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science (EAWAG), Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC) URL [Accessed: 08.04.2010]

Decentralized Approach to Waste Management and Composting for Climate/co-benefits: Case of Bangladesh

This presentation with 47 slides provides case studies on decentralized approach of waste management being implemented at Bangladesh.

MD. SINHA, A.H.M. (2010): Decentralized Approach to Waste Management and Composting for Climate/co-benefits: Case of Bangladesh. (= Presentation made during Plenary Session 2 at International Consultative Meeting on Expanding Waste Management Service in Developing Countries, March 18-19 2010 Tokyo, Japan ).

Decentralized Composting for Cities of Low-and Middle-Income Countries A Users’ Manual

Based on the experiences of Waste Concern on implementing decentralized composting facilities in Dhaka and other Asian Cities, this manual provides step-by-step guidelines on how to initiate and operate small-scale composting facilities in developing countries so as to turn waste into jobs and food security.

ROTHENBERGER, S. ZURBRUGG, C. ENAYETULLAH, I. SINHA, A.H.M. (2006): Decentralized Composting for Cities of Low-and Middle-Income Countries A Users’ Manual. Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC) at the Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science (EAWAG) and Waste Concern URL [Accessed: 11.08.2010]

Developing Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan – Training Manual

This document is the fourth and last of the four sets of guidelines on ISWM. It focuses on how to develop an ISWM Plan by utilizing the information collected and generated with the help of the previous three sets of the guidelines. This document could also be used as a standalone document to build the capacity of experts and policy makers on planning for ISWM.

UNEP (2009): Developing Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan – Training Manual . (= ISWM Plan , 4 ). Osaka/Shiga, Japan: UNEP URL [Accessed: 29.10.2012]

Organic Waste Management in Nepal

This presentation with 24 slides provides an overview of organic waste management in Nepal and includes examples of compost plants in Nepal.

TULADHAR, B. (2010): Organic Waste Management in Nepal. In: Workshop on Innovations for Scaling Up Organic Waste Management in South Asia, April 2-3, 2010:

International Source Book on Environmentally Sound Technologies for Municipal Solid Waste Management

This Source Book is directed towards municipal solid waste management decision makers of developing countries and countries in transition, non-governmental organisations and community-based organizations involved in waste management. The book serves as a general reference guide to researchers, scientists, science and technology institutions and private industries on a global state-of-the-art on environmentally sound technologies for municipal solid waste management. It provides a list of information sources and overviews of practices in the world regions relating to environmentally sound management of municipal solid waste (waste reduction, collection and transfer, composting, incineration, landfills, special wastes, waste characterization, management and planning, training, public education and financing). Parts of the book can be viewed within this website.

UNEP ; IETC (1996): International Source Book on Environmentally Sound Technologies for Municipal Solid Waste Management. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and International Environmental Technology Centre Japan (IETC) URL [Accessed: 28.04.2010]
Awareness Raising Material

Community based Composting

This brochure describes composting and the “Community-based Waste Management and Composting Pilot Program,” implemented in urban slum and suburban areas of Bangladesh by Waste Concern, with support from Government of Bangladesh and UNICEF.

WASTE CONCERN Community based Composting. Dhaka: Waste Concern

What Happens When the Pit is Full?

This seminar report helps people responsible for the sustainable operation of on-site sanitation systems. It shows new developments in the field and contains a lot of detailed information about Faecal Sludge Management (FSM).

WINSA (2011): What Happens When the Pit is Full?. Developments in On-Site Faecal Sludge Management (FSM). Durban: Water Information Network South Afrika (WINSA) URL [Accessed: 06.10.2011]

Alternative Versions to