Library

This review focuses on decentralised systems that treat the potable water (drinking and cooking) of a single household (point-of-use systems) or a community (small-scale systems). For application in developing and transition countries, important boundary conditions for decentralised systems include low costs, ease of use, sustainability, low maintenance and independence of utilities (energy sources). Although some low-cost systems are available, their application is limited by time-consuming daily operation and maintenance. Other systems are too expensive for the poor populations of developing and transition countries and in most cases do not fulfil the system requirements described above. Point-of-use systems based on membranes are commercially available and are designed to operate on tap pressure or gravity.

PETER-VARBANETS, M. ; ZURBRÜGG, C. ; SWARTZ, C. ; PRONK, W. (2009): Review: Decentralized Systems for Potable Water and the Potential of Membrane Technology. In: Water Research: Volume 43 , 245-265. URL [Accessed: 13.05.2019]

This report has critically reviewed various HWT technologies on the basis of technical, social and economical factors and gives a good overview for an informed choice.

WHO (2002): Managing Water in the Home: Accelerated Health Gains from Improved Water Supply. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) URL [Accessed: 13.05.2019]

This website provides background, guidelines, and planning tools for small community water supply.

WHO (2012): Small community water supply management. World Health Organisation (WHO) URL [Accessed: 13.05.2019]

This review looks at the factors affecting the presence and growth of microorganisms in piped networks, and the practices of water supply organisations that can directly or indirectly influence their presence and growth. This review is intended for policymakers but it is also relevant to engineers and scientists responsible for water supply planning, operations and monitoring.

AINSWORTH, R. (2004): Safe Piped Water: Managing Microbial Water Quality in Piped Distribution. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) URL [Accessed: 13.05.2019]

NPTEL (n.y): Water Distribution Systems. Chennai: National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL) URL [Accessed: 13.05.2019]

Behind headline successes in providing first-time access to water lie a number of pressing challenges to the dominant approach to rural water supply in developing countries, namely community management following a demand-responsive approach. These challenges manifest themselves in poor performance of service providers, high rates of hardware failure, and very low levels of service. This paper argues that tackling these challenges requires a shift in emphasis in rural water supply in developing countries: away from a de-facto focus on the provision of hardware for first-time access towards the proper use of installed hardware as the basis for universal access to rural water services.

MORIARTY, P. ; SMITS, S. ; BUTTERWORTH, J. ; FRANCEYS, R. (2013): Trends in Rural Water Supply. Towards a Service Delivery Approach. In: Water Alternatives: Volume 6 , 329-349. URL [Accessed: 13.05.2019]

UN-HABITAT ; GWA (2006): Navigating Gender in African Cities. United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT) and the Gender and Water Alliance (GWA) URL [Accessed: 13.05.2019]

From 2000 to 2006, the cross-cutting project Novaquatis explored the potential of urine source separation – also known as NoMix technology. Novaquatis comprises nine work packages, largely organized around the various stages of a nutrient cycle (e.g. user acceptation, sanitary technologies, storage and transport, urine treatment and fertiliser production, micropollutants in urine, urine-based fertilisers). The final report contains the results of all working packages as well as a practical guide for interested NoMix user.

LARSEN, T. A. LIENERT, J. (2007): Novaquatis final report. NoMix – A new approach to urban water management. Duebendorf: Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science (EAWAG) URL [Accessed: 12.05.2019]

WIRSEEN, C. PALMKLINT, N. (2011): Use of the Peepoo. Stockholm: PEEPOOPLE URL [Accessed: 12.05.2019]

Critical article by environmental activist and Stockholm Water Price Laureate Sunita Narain, on why it is mindless to waste so much clean water to flush away excreta.

NARAIN, S. (2002): The Flush Toilet is Ecologically Mindless. In: Down to Earth: Volume 19 URL [Accessed: 12.05.2019]

This brochure gives you an overview of the sanitary problematic and the Peepoo as a possible solution.

PEEPOOPLE (n.y): Brochure. Stockholm (Sweeden): Peepoople URL [Accessed: 12.05.2019]

This case study investigates whether toilet bags are a feasible sanitation alternative for poor urban settlements including the socio-cultural acceptance.

GTZ (2009): Results of a medium-scale trial of single-use, self-sanitising toilet bags in poor urban settlements in Bangladesh. Eschborn: German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) GmbH URL [Accessed: 12.05.2019]

SUSANA (2010): https://www.flickr.com/photos/gtzecosan/3940242407 "Online image". [Accessed: 12.05.2019]

Fossa alterna with a urine diversion component (optional). Image from Flickr

This study aims at finding out if the Peepoo meets the expectations and perceptions of end users, if it is biodegradable and also if it is economically viable in terms of generating organic manure for sale.

JAC (2009): Impact Assessment Report on the Peepoo bags, Silanga Village, Kibera, Nairobi-Kenya. Nairobi: Jean Africa Consultants (JAC) URL [Accessed: 12.05.2019]

Factsheet including information related to microbial die-off rates and health risks.

U.S. EPA (1999): Water Efficiency Technology Fact Sheet - Composting Toilets. Washington D.C. (USA): United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), Office of Water. EPA 832-F-99-066 URL [Accessed: 12.05.2019]

This GIZ publication explains the design, use and operational requirements of composting toilets. Ample examples for composting toilets from around the world are included in the publication to show that these types of toilets have a wide range of applications under a variety of circumstances (for wealthy or poor people; for cold, hot, wet or dry climates; for urban or rural settings). The appendix contains a listing of suppliers.

BERGER, W. (2011): Technology Review of Composting Toilets. Eschborn: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) URL [Accessed: 12.05.2019]

This case study is about a demonstration project in the headquarters of GTZ in Eschborn, Germany. The project consists of 50 urine-diversion flush toilets, 23 waterless urinals and 10 m³ urine storage tank.

WINKER, M. SADOUN, A. (2011): Urine and brownwater separation at the GTZ main office building, Eschborn, Germany. (= SuSanA - Case Studies ). Eschborn: Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA) URL [Accessed: 12.05.2019]

End-product from 16 public mixed latrine style composting toilets (CTs) at 12 sites between 50 and 2100 m.a.s.l. in Western North America was tested in order to evaluate the effect of composting variables on compost quality and hygiene.

HILL, G. B. ; BALDWIN, S. A. ; VINNERAAS, B. (2013): Composting Toilets a Misnomer: Excessive Ammonia from Urine Inhibits Microbial Activity yet Is Insufficient in Sanitizing the End-Product. In: Journal of Environmental Management: Volume 119 , 29-35. URL [Accessed: 12.05.2019]

This diploma thesis describes the production of terra preta (collection, lacto-fermentation, vermicomposting) as a new sanitation concept (in german).

HESTERMANN, N. (2010): Herstellung von Terra Preta bei der Umsetzung ökologischer Sanitärkonzepte. (= Diplomarbeit ). Hamburg Harburg: Techische Universität Hamburg Harburg TUHH) URL [Accessed: 11.05.2019]

Critical article on the sustainability of burning biomass to produce terra preta for climate change mitigation.

KLEINER, K. (2009): The bright prospect of biochar. In: Nature reports climate change: Volume 3 , 72-74. URL [Accessed: 11.05.2019]