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Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are emerging as promising technology for the treatment of wastewaters. The potential energy conversion efficiencies are examined. The rates of energy recovery (W/m3 reactor) are reviewed and evaluated. Some recent data relating to potato-processing wastewaters and a hospital wastewater effluent are reported. Finally, a set of process configurations in which MFCs could be useful to treat wastewaters is schematised. Overall, the MFC technology still faces major challenges, particularly in terms of chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal efficiency.

AELTERMAN, P. ; RABAEY, K. ; CLAUWAERT, P. ; VERSTRAETE, W. (2006): Microbial Fuel Cells for Wastewater Treatment. In: Water Science & Technology: Volume 54 , 9-15. URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

In this chapter, a variety of secondary sludge post treatment methods for energy recovery, including incineration, gasification, pyrolysis, direct liquefaction, supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) and anaerobic digestion were overviewed. A critical comparison between these methods is presented with respect to their net energy efficiencies. The advantages and drawbacks of each treatment option are also highlighted.

XU, C.C. LANCASTER, J. (n.y): Treatment of Secondary Sludge for Energy Recovery. Thunderbay: Department of Chemical Engineering, Lakehead University URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

https://www.eawag.ch/en/department/sandec/projects/ [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

On its homepage, the EAWAG (Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology) is highlighting one of their innovative research projects in Nepal, which combines improved sanitation with increased food security. The STUN project investigated the feasibility of collecting urine to produce a phosphorus-based fertiliser called Struvite.

This article investigates the potential for using soil solution chemical properties to study the consequences of recycling sewage-sludge incinerator ash on agricultural land.

BIERMAN, P. ; ROSEN, C. ; BLOOM, P. ; NATER, E. (1995): Soil Solution Chemistry of Sewage-Sludge Incinerator Ash and Phosphate Fertiliser Amended Soil. In: Journal of Environmental Quality: Volume 24 , 279-285. URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

This presentation describes the need for recycling phosphorus and the economic sector of the enterprise. There is further information on the process and the pilot plant. Aspects of benchmark and finance are included as well as a brief description of the need for recycling phosphorous (in German).

HERMANN, L. BACHLEITNER, E. (2004): Recycling von Phosphor aus Klärschlammaschen. Vienna: ASH DEC Umwelt AG URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

This study focused on the main components of sewage sludge incinerated ash, which are silicic acid and alumina, as well as the components for nucleation. Based on this idea, the production of glass-ceramic using sewage sludge incinerated ash as the main material has been attempted.

SUZUKI, S. ; TANAKA, M. ; KANEKO, T. (1997): Glass-ceramic from Sewage Sludge. In: Journal of Materials Science: Volume 32 , 1775-1779. URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

The intermediate project report gives an overview on the STUN (Struvite Recovery from Urine in Nepal) project. STUN is a joint collaboration project of Eawag (Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology) and UN-Habitat Nepal (The United Nations Human Settlement Pro¬gramme). The goal of the STUN project is a feasibility assessment of the conversion of urine into Struvite powder as a viable means for capturing the nutrients contained in source separated urine.

ETTER, B. (2009): Struvite recovery from urine at community scale in Nepal. Project intermediate report submitted to EPFL (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne). Kathmandu: UN Habitat URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

Sensible alternatives are being sought to the present method of disposing of mechanically de-watered sewage sludge such as dumping, agricultural use, drying and incineration.

PUTZMEISTER (2001): Co-incineration of Sewage Sludge in Coal-Fuelled Power Stations. Aichtal: Putzmeister Holding GmbH URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

Biodiesel production from sewage sludge poses huge challenges to overcome if commercial opportunities are to be realised. Some of these challenges are not unique to biodiesel production from waste sludge but to the biodiesel industry as a whole. They include challenges from (1) collecting the sludge, (2) optimum production of biodiesel, (3) maintaining product quality, (4) soap formation and product separation, (5) bioreactor design, (6) pharmaceutical chemicals in sludge, (7) regulatory concerns, and (8) economics of biodiesel production.

KARGBO, D.M. (2010): Biodiesel Production from Municipal Sewage Sludges. In: Energy Fuels 2010: Volume 24 , 2791–2794. URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

This information service on biogas technology has been developed and produced on the order of the GTZ project Information and Advisory Service on Appropriate Technology (ISAT). It contains information on the application of biogas and product development.

KOSSMANN, W. POENITZ, U. HABERMEHL, S. HOERZ, T. KRAEMER, P. KLINGLER, B. KELLNER, C. WITTUR, T. VON KLOPOTEK, F. KRIEG, A. EULER, H. (1999): Biogas Digest Volume II. Biogas - Application and Product Development. Eschborn: GTZ URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

The aim of this project is to show that decentralised and virtually energy self-sufficient disposal of sewage sludge is possible with the use of intelligent process technology and optimised plant components. Well-proven plant components have been combined to create an innovative overall concept. Read more in this report.

HUBER (2011): Layman Report: Sludge2Energy A Way to Energy Self-sufficient Sewage Treatment Plants. Berching: HUBER SE URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

In this report a good collection of Nordic innovative companies and their products are introduced. The report highlights some examples in the key technologies. It can be seen that in the Nordic countries there is a good industry base to cover the most promising recent innovative technologies.

GREENNET FINLAND (n.y): Sludge Treatment. Vantaa: Greennet Finland URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

This report compiles international experience in greywater management on household and neighbourhood level in low and middle-income countries. The documented systems, which vary significantly in terms of complexity, performance and costs, range from simple systems for single-house applications (e.g. local infiltration or garden irrigation) to rather complex treatment trains for neighbourhoods (e.g. series of vertical and horizontal-flow planted soil filters).

MOREL, A. DIENER, S. (2006): Greywater Management in Low and Middle-Income Countries, Review of Different Treatment Systems for Households or Neighbourhoods. (= SANDEC Report No. 14/06 ). Duebendorf: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science (EAWAG), Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC) URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

In this mini-review, the `state of the art' of several fermentation processes is discussed, starting with the most advanced process of ethanol production.

CLAASSEN, P.A.M. ; LIER, J.B. van ; LOPEZ CONTRERAS, A.M. ; NIEL, E.W.J. van ; SIJTSMA, L. ; STAMS, A.J.M. ; VRIES, S.S. de ; WEUSTHUIS, R.A. (1999): Utilisation of Biomass for the Supply of Energy Carriers. In: Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol: Volume 52 , 741-755. URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

These terms of references define the legal regulations in Switzerland concerning the water protection and air pollution control for the use of nutrients and fertilisers in agriculture.

BAFU ; BLW (2012): Nährstoffe und Verwendung von Düngern in der Landwirtschaft. Ein Modul der Vollzugshilfe Umweltschutz in der Landwirtschaft. Bern: Bundesamt für Umwelt (BAFU) / Bundesamt für Landwirtschaft (BLW) URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

In the Flintenbreite in Luebeck, Germany, blackwater is collected in vacuum toilets. Together with organic wastes from the kitchen it is converted to biogas. Greywater is treated in a reed-bed filter. The project demonstrated the consistent utilisation of ecological building materials, the use of self-sustaining, integrated energy and wastewater concepts, and the implementation of innovative energy saving technologies, with a minimisation of interference in nature, and a responsible, integrative and active cohabitation of the inhabitants.

OTTER-WASSER (2009): Ecological housing estate, Flintenbreite, Luebeck, Germany - draft. (= SuSanA - Case Studies ). Eschborn: Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA) URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

Complete report on the pilot scale struvite reactor developed and operated in the Kathmandu Valley.

ETTER, B. (2009): Optimization of low-cost struvite recovery. (= Master thesis ). Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL) URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

Decentralized anaerobic digestion is a promising technology to handle the large organic fraction of the municipal solid waste (e.g. kitchen waste) with the additional benefit of producing biogas as well as fertilizer. This paper evaluates the suitability of the ARTI Compact biogas system as a decentralised low-tech treatment option for the organic fraction of household waste in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

LOHRI (2009): Research on Anaerobic Digestion of Organic Solid Waste at Household Level in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. (= Bachelor Thesis ). Zurich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW) URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

http://www.novaquatis.eawag.ch/arbeitspakete/nova6/index_EN.html [Accessed: 27.05.2019]

This is homepage of the EAWAG project on fertiliser production form urine (NOVA 6) presents results form pot test and field experiments of the application in agriculture and steps forward for scaling up.

Different strategies and methods to achieve the target of recovering phosphorus from sludge are discussed based on reports from the Swedish environment protection agency (SEPA) and with special emphasis on extraction of phosphate from wastewater, sludge and ash at central plants. Some possible improvements are briefly discussed, such as the use of certain comparatively clean sludge fractions and use of two-stage technology for the recovery.

HULTMAN, B. LEVLIN, E. PLAZA, E. STARK, K. (n.y): Phosphorus Recovery from Sludge in Sweden - Possibilities to meet proposed Goals in an efficient, sustainable and economical Way. URL [Accessed: 27.05.2019]