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This document describes onsite wastewater soil absorption systems (WSAS), which have the potential to achieve high treatment efficiencies over a long life service at low cost. Information is given on the function and performance of WSAS, the current state of knowledge, and identifying major gaps in predicting system performance.

SIEGRIST, R. L., TYLER, E.J. and JENSSEN, P.D. (2000): Design and Performance of Onsite Wastewater Soil Absorption Systems. St. Louis, Missouri (USA): Paper presented at National Research Needs Conference, Risk-Based Decision Making for Onsite Wastewater Treatment, 19–20 May. URL [Accessed: 23.01.2019] PDF

Infiltration of wastewater in buried soil infiltration systems has been promoted as a low cost, effective alternative for treatment and disposal of wastewater flows from commercial developments and small communities. However, design and performance relationships are not always well defined and systems are often implemented based on local tradition and empiricism. This paper describes design criteria especially for large subsurface wastewater treatment systems.

JENSSEN, P.D. ; SIEGRIST, R.L. (1990): Technology Assessment of Wastewater Treatment by Soil Infiltration Systems. In: Water Science & Technology: Volume 22 , 83-92. URL [Accessed: 23.01.2019]

LANCE, J.C. (1972): Nitrogen removal by soil mechanisms. Water Pollution Control Federation 44(7), 1552–1561. URL [Accessed: 23.01.2019]

GaBi combines t Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) modelling and reporting software, content databases with data collection and reporting tools. With the aim to help LCA professionals to save money, reduce risk, communicate product benefits and increase revenue.

http://www.gabi-software.com/international/index/ [Accessed: 22.01.2019]

HORVATH, A. STOKES, J. University of California, Berkeley Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering (2011): Life-cycle Energy Assessment of Alternative Water Supply Systems in California. Final Project Report California Energy Commission. California Energy Commission URL [Accessed: 22.01.2019]

DIXON, A. ; et al. (2003): Assessing the environmental impact of two options for small-scale wastewater treatment: comparing a reedbed and an aerated biological filter using a life cycle approach. In: Ecological Engineering: Volume 20 Issue 4, 297-308. URL [Accessed: 22.01.2019]

MACHADO, A. P. ; et al. (2006): Life cycle assessment of wastewater treatment options for small and decentralized communities. In: 10th International conference on wetland systems for water pollution control: URL [Accessed: 22.01.2019]

openLCA is an open source and free software for Sustainability and Life Cycle Assessment.

http://www.openlca.org/ [Accessed: 22.01.2019]

SimaPro is a life cycle assessment (LCA) software package for industry and academics globally. SimaPro contains science-based methods and databases. 

https://simapro.com/ [Accessed: 22.01.2019]

OTTERPOHL, R. ; BRAUN, U. ; OLDENBURG, M. (2004): Innovative technologies for decentralised water-, wastewater and biowaste management in urban and peri-urban areas. In: Water science and technology: Volume 48 Issue 11, 23-32. URL [Accessed: 22.01.2019]

International Standard Organizations (1997): ISO 14040 Environmental management - life cycle assessment: principles and framework. Geneva: URL [Accessed: 22.01.2019]

COROMINAS, L. ; FOLEY, J. ; et al. (2013): Life cycle assessment applied to wastewater treatment: state of the art. In: Water research: Volume 47 Issue 15, 5480-5492. URL [Accessed: 22.01.2019]

The Leiden-Delft-Erasmus Centre for Frugal Innovation in Africa (CFIA) is an academic research centre focused on frugal innovation. Technological and research projects are used to investigate the development of scientifically sound frameworks leading to more a effective use of frugal innovations and technologies. In addition, through teaching and consulting, knowledge on frugal innovation is exchanged.

https://www.cfia.nl/home [Accessed: 21.01.2019]

PRABHU, J. ; RADJOU, N. (2014): What Frugal Innovators Do. In: Harvard Business Review : URL [Accessed: 18.01.2019]

WEYRAUCH, T. ; HERSTATT, C. (2017): What is frugal innovation? Three defining criteria. In: Journal of Frugal Innovation : Volume 2 Issue 1 URL [Accessed: 18.01.2019] PDF

WEHNA, U. ; MONTALVO, C. (2018): Exploring the dynamics of water innovation: Foundations for water innovation studies. In: Journal of Cleaner Production : Issue 171, 1-19. URL [Accessed: 18.01.2019] PDF

MCPHEE, C. ; GUPTA, D. ; HOSSAIN, M. (2018): Frugal Innovation Editorial. In: Technology Innovation Management Review: Volume 8 Issue 4, 3-5. URL [Accessed: 18.01.2019] PDF

DRESSLER, A. ; BUCHER, J. (2018): Introducing a Sustainability Evaluation Framework based on the Sustainable Development Goals applied to Four Cases of South African Frugal Innovation. In: Business Strategy & Development: Volume 1 Issue 4 URL [Accessed: 18.01.2019]

HYVÄRINEN , A. ; KESKINEN, M. ; VARIS, O. Potential and Pitfalls of Frugal Innovation in the Water Sector: Insights from Tanzania to Global Value Chains. In: Sustainability 8(9):888 : URL [Accessed: 18.01.2019] PDF

RADJOU, N. (2017): The genius of frugal innovation. In: TED Talks, Ideas.ted.com: URL [Accessed: 18.01.2019]