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Over the past three decades, anthropogenic emissions of chemical compounds into the atmosphere have caused many environmental and health problems. Some chemicals, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), are produced deliberately and end up in the atmosphere by accident from equipment or goods. Others, such as sulphur dioxide (SO2) and carbon monoxide (CO), are unavoidable by-products of burning fossil fuels. Urban air pollution, acid rain, contamination by toxic chemicals (some of them persistent and transported over long distances), depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer and changes in the global climatic system are all important environmental threats to ecosystems and human wellbeing.

UNEP (2002): State of the Environment and Policy Retrospective: 1972–2002. Chapter 2-7: Atmosphere. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd URL [Accessed: 10.06.2019]

Read more about environmental problems caused by incineration plants in the United Kingdom.

GREENPEACE (n.y): Pollution and Health Impacts of Waste Incinerators. London: Greenpeace U.K. URL [Accessed: 10.06.2019]

EISENMANN (n.y): Waste Disposal - Eisenmann Fluidized Bed Incineration. Holzgerlingen: EISENMANN Anlagenbau GmbH & Co URL [Accessed: 10.06.2019]

Use of ion exchange processes as in the BioCon-process, make it possible to recover the phosphate as phosphoric acid, which is produced from apatite ore, thus preserving the limited apatite resources and the resources, mainly sulphur, needed for producing phosphoric acid from apatite.

LEVLIN, E. (n.y): Recovery of Phosphate from Sewage Sludge and Separation of Metals by Ion Exchange. Stockholm: Royal Institute of Technology URL [Accessed: 10.06.2019]

Read more about chamber filter presses and their applications, benefits and options in this paper.

PARKSON (2008): Filter Presses. Manual, Semi-Automatic, Automatic. Fort Lauderdale: Parkson Corporation URL [Accessed: 10.06.2019]

The paper presents directions for a new system technology for municipal wastewater treatment, in order to consider both phosphorus removal and recovery.

HULTMAN, B. LOEWEN, M. (n.y): Combined Phosphorus Removal and Recovery. Stockholm: Royal Institute of Technology URL [Accessed: 10.06.2019]

Water resources are limited in the oasis town of Béni Abbès. Efficient resource planning is complicated due the deficit of reliable data on demand, supply, and use of water. To improve the data collection, GIZ introduced an IWRM project at the oasis in order to get a sufficiently account for all demands on the available water resources. The main objective of the sanitation activities of this IWRM project is to support the elaboration of an overall strategy for the future management of all wastewater, ensuring the collection and treatment of the generated wastewater within the oasis and to maximise its reuse potential. This SuSanA case study presents only the greywater part of the wastewater concept. The greywater treatment and reuse systems used in the project were designed to collect, treat and reuse greywater coming from kitchen sinks and wash hand basins.

BRACKEN, P. (2012): Greywater Treatment in an Oasis Town, Béni Abbès, Béchar, Algeria. Case Study of Sustainable Sanitation Projects. Béni Abbès, Béchar, Algeria : Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA) URL [Accessed: 10.06.2019]

This case study presents a post-rehabilitation project in Bangladesh after cyclone Sidr in 2007, which included provision of 100 twin vault UDDTs in rural villages. The three main challenges were finding an adequate place on the compound for the UDDTs, the use of UDDTs e.g. daily practices and maintenance, and the reuse of dried excreta.

DELEPIERE, A. (2011): Household UDDTs after cyclone disaster, Padma and Rohitra villages, Barishal Division, Bangladesh Case study of sustainable sanitation projects. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA) URL [Accessed: 09.06.2019]

Statistics of availability and type of latrine facility.

CHANDRAMOULI, C. (2012): Availability and Type of Latrine Facility: 2001-2011. New Dehli: Census of India, Government of India URL [Accessed: 09.06.2019]

OXFAM (2009): UD Toilets and Composting Toilets in Emergency Settings. (= Technical Brief ). London: Oxfam Publishing URL [Accessed: 09.06.2019]

How important is sanitation during a humanitarian crisis? Why is it important to explore ecological and sustainable sanitation? Groupe URD looks at the case of Eastern Chad, an example of a major long-term crisis. From an acute emergency in 2003, the crisis has gone through a number of phases. The appropriateness of aid mechanisms is currently being questioned, with a particular focus on sanitation. Sustainable sanitation can help to improve the quality of life of refugees and IDPs as well as local populations. From this perspective, what lessons from Eastern Chad could be useful in other contexts?

U.R.D. (2012): Humanitarian Crises and Sustainable Sanitation: Lessons from Eastern Chad. Plaisians: Groupe URD (Urgence Réhabilitation Développement) URL [Accessed: 09.06.2019]

Presentation of different types of constructed wetlands for various types of wastewater.

VYMAZAL, J. SENGUPTA, M. ; DALWANI, R. (2008): Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment: A Review. (= Proceedings of Taal 2007: The 12th World Lake Conference ). Czech Republic: ENKI, o.p.s. and Institute of Systems Biology and Ecology, Czech Academy of Sciences URL [Accessed: 09.06.2019]

MWASE, H. (2006): The Potential of Ecosan to provide Sustainable Sanitation in Emergency Situations and to achieve “Quick Wins” in MDGs. (= MSc Thesis Abstract ). Delft: UNESCO-IHE URL [Accessed: 09.06.2019]

In many countries, knowledge about the potential for harm from health-care wastes has now become more prominent to governments, medical practitioners and civil society. The indiscriminate and erratic handling and disposal of waste within health-care facilities is now widely recognized as a source of avoidable infection, and is synonymous with public perception of poor standards of health care. Water pollution and inadequate wastewater treatment pose important risks to health.

WHO (2013): Safe Management of Wastes from Health-care Activities. (= Second Edition ). Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) URL [Accessed: 09.06.2019]

https://www.susana.org/en/ [Accessed: 09.06.2019]

The objective of this SuSanA working group is to combine the knowledge from experts in the fields of sanitation with the knowledge from experts in the field of emergency response and reconstruction. The site includes documents, workshop inputs and presentations with best practice examples of sustainable sanitation options in emergency and reconstruction situations.

SEPARETT (2011): Rescue Camping 25. Bredaryd: Separett AB URL [Accessed: 09.06.2019]

This document summarises the discussion and outcomes of an expert workshop in 2009, identifying useful ideas that can improve sanitation practices in terms of sustainability but are still suitable for emergency situations. It includes inputs from various experts from the sector.

RUBERTO, C. JOHANNESSEN, A. (2009): Innovations in Emergency Sanitation. International Water Association (IWA). (= 2-day Workshop, 11-13 February 2009 ). Stoutenburg: The Netherlands URL [Accessed: 09.06.2019]

This handbook has been developed as a practical tool to meet the needs of children and women affected by disasters. It is a very detailed document where a lot of information can be found by practioneers around the globe.

UNICEF (2005): Emergency Field Handbook. A Guide for UNICEF Staff. New York: The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) URL [Accessed: 09.06.2019]

This technical note points out the importance of including the needs of vulnerable groups into public health programmes in general. It features a checklist for practically responding to gender and other socio-cultural issues and a case study from Pakistan (2005) where Oxfam adapted communal sanitation facilities for communities where women previously lived in seclusion.

OXFAM (n.y): Vulnerability and Socio-Cultural Considerations for PHE in Emergencies. Oxfam Technical Brief. Oxford: OXFAM URL [Accessed: 09.06.2019]

OXFAM (2007): Excreta Disposal for People with Physical Disabilities in Emergencies. (= Technical Brief ). London: Oxfam Publishing URL [Accessed: 09.06.2019]