2019 مايو 14

Leakage Control

المؤلف*
Florian Faure (seecon international gmbh)
M.M. Pandit (Indian Water Works Association, IWWA)
Dorothee Spuhler (seecon international gmbh)

المُلخص التنفيذي

Water leakage is an important component of water losses. Many methods for controlling leakage from urban water supply systems have emerged, but it remains a challenge in developing countries, especially those with intermittent water supplies. Specific methods have been developed for such systems, used in combination with adaptations of more usual methods.

المزايا
Detecting leaks helps saving water resources, costs and energy
More water is available to consumers and can be billed
Water recontamination after centralised treatment is less likely to happen in the pipes
العيوب
Conventional leak detection equipment is often expensive and more adapted methods have to be chosen in developing countries
Leaks are only a small part of non-revenue water in developing countries
Governance and pricing must be a priority in water supply management
Some of the leak detection methods involve interruption of the supply leading to consumers’ dissatisfaction

Introduction

Factsheet Block Body

Leaks are the major component of water loss in developed countries. This is not always true for developing countries, but it remains an important factor of water wastage. Illegal connections, metering and accounting errors as well as pricing issues should be addressed in priority, but leakage control remains an effective tool for limiting water losses.

Non-revenue water expressed as percentage of the total produced volume of drinking water in major Asian cities (up to 65%, with an average of 30%). Non-revenue water is a major issue in developing countries, seriously undermining efforts to develop sustainable water supply systems. Source: MCINTOSH (2003)
Non-revenue water expressed as percentage of the total produced volume of drinking water in major Asian cities (up to 65%, with an average of 30%). Non-revenue water is a major issue in developing countries, seriously undermining efforts to develop sustainable water supply systems. Source: MCINTOSH (2003)

 

Process and basic principles

Factsheet Block Body

A water system includes intakes, water pipelines, storage reservoirs and pumps. Once the water enters the system at the intakes from the source, pumps provide energy to convey the water through the pipelines to storage reservoirs from which it is distributed to consumers. Pipelines are formed of multiple pipes with joints and leakage generally occurs where the pipe joints are faulty or where defects develop in the pipe body. The longer leaks remain unattended the larger the economic and resource loss will be to the authorities, as electric power to run the pumps and chemicals to treat water are also wasted. Pressure in mains, water hammers, soil instability, corrosion of water pipes, poor quality of fittings, traffic loading, age of components are some of the main factors affecting leakage. Leakage control work involves the following major step.

As an example of the main factors affecting leakage: the more pressure in the main the more leakage, as shown by the continuous line. Source: WAA et al. (1985)
As an example of the main factors affecting leakage: the more pressure in the main the more leakage, as shown by the continuous line. Source: WAA et al. (1985)

 

Leakage control work involves the following major steps:

  • Preparatory work: updating maps, databases of consumer connections, residing population, water mains, valves and fire hydrants etc.; planning of activities.
  • Test for loss assessment and locating the defects (leak detection).
  • Repair and replacement of system components.
  • Re-assessment, several times if needed.
  • Program monitoring.
  • Build up procedures and standardised activities applied to the considered system.
  • Training of staff, including training of trainers and updating.

 

Leak detection

Factsheet Block Body

Major leaks can be visible on the surface: these have to be fixed in priority. It is the first and most import step of leaks control in developing countries. Purchasing leak detection instruments is an approach typical of developed countries, but not necessarily the most adapted one for developing countries (FARLEY 2001, MCINTOSH 2003). Leakage assessment uses various techniques such as district and/or wastage metering, pressure control, sounding or passive leakage control for continuous supply. For intermittent supply, the mobile tanker, stop tap, or district meter methods as well as pressure, sounding or passive leakage controls can be used. The selection of a method has to be based on local conditions and resources (see also FARLEY 2001 for the description of most methods and their applicability).

Continuous supply systems

Factsheet Block Body

It is common in continuous supply systems to measure district flow at night and find a minimum, known as “minimum night flow”. For cost-effective work, district metering is typically done for 2000 to 5000 properties; waste metering is typically done for about 1000 to 3000 properties. These methods are now well established and have been well documented. However, specific reference books / manuals need to be consulted for the adaptation of these methods to intermittent supply.

District metering areas (DMA) design options, and metering hierarchy. Source FARLEY (2001) 
District metering areas (DMA) design options, and metering hierarchy. Source FARLEY (2001) 

 

Using electronic instruments, noise detection principles can be applied by listening to the pipelines and filtering external noises, amplifying the leak-noise of certain frequency range to detect and pin-point the leaks. Advanced state-of-the-art instruments such as electronic sounding rods, multi-frequency leak locators, leak noise correlators or noise loggers also exist. Depending on the chosen technique, instruments may be combined. For continuous supply systems properly metered (usually those of developed countries), software packages such as ‘BABE’ (Burst & Background Estimates) help assessing the annual volume lost for different categories of leaks, depending on their average duration.

Intermittent supply systems

Factsheet Block Body

For intermittent supply systems, the mobile tanker method has been developed. A small main stretch (typically 100 connections and 400 to 500 meters) is isolated and fed under pressure during non-supply hours, long enough to measure leak flows and locations. Boundary valves and consumer connections are closed. The line supplying the injection point from the tanker contains a meter with a pulsehead, a pressure transducer and a data logger that records pressure and flow (FARLEY & TROW 2003; CPHEEO 2005). A direct measure of leakage, otherwise difficult to locate during short supply hours, can be obtained. The method has been used at large scales in the metropolitan cities of Chennai, Hyderabad, Ahemdabad (India) and Kathmandu (Nepal).

Establishment of the mobile tanker method, with the instruments and their configuration. Source: CPHEEO (2005). 
Establishment of the mobile tanker method, with the instruments and their configuration. Source: CPHEEO (2005). 

 

The mobile tanker method is one of the most cost-effective methods: it requires little material and manpower, and does not need installed consumer meters or district meters. Work does not need to be repeated as small stretches are isolated for testing purpose and all defects can be found and repaired within each part.

Another method for intermittent supplies is the stop tap method (adapted from FARLEY 2001): boundary valves and customer's connections stop taps are closed. A special supply is arranged from the nearest water distribution station, and the water flow is directly metered through the test area. Basic leak detection equipment is then used to locate the leak points. The main problem with this method, as compared to the mobile tanker method, is the need to divert water supplies to the test area. It also wastes a lot of water, lost at the leak points during the test, and has to be repeated as only a few leaks are detected each time.

Operation and maintenance

Factsheet Block Body

Leakage control is a regular maintenance activity and needs to be given priority, and to be included in the routine maintenance activities by establishing a separate department dedicated to it. Reporting by this department should also include the cost of water saved and the cost of the implemented program. Zonal caretakers reporting to O&M (see also water distribution and water purification) supervisors can be efficient in the follow-up of water leaks and other losses, if familiar enough with the water network and the inhabitants of each zone (MCINTOSH 2003).

Health aspects

Factsheet Block Body

In intermittent supply systems, leak points become likely entrances for contamination as pipelines are not under pressure outside supply hours: locating leaks and repairing them helps closing the contamination-prone areas of the water pipeline network and improves the safety of the water.

التطيبق

All piped networks are subject to leaks and should be controlled. Maximum leakage occurs on pipelines from which consumer connections are laid, caused for example by faulty joints or corroded ferrule joints. Due to the large time span between occurrence of underground leakage on such pipelines and the repair, water lost due to the underground leak-flows exceeds by far the water lost due to bursts from larger pipelines. An efficient routine maintenance can lead to substantial resource and financial savings. Each method has its own applicability; as an example, the mobile tanker method is applicable on pipelines up to diameters of 150 mm (general size in urban area), especially that of intermittent supply systems.

المراجع

Asian Water Supplies. Reaching the Urban Poor

Guide and sourcebook on urban water supplies, focusing on Asia. It looks at problems and solutions related to water resources management, private sector participation, non-revenue water… The book proposes a new approach to the development and management of water supplies, based on transparent government policy and regulation, and the involvement of civil society.

MCINTOSH, A.C. (2003): Asian Water Supplies. Reaching the Urban Poor. Asian Development Bank (ADB) and International Water Association (IWA) URL [Accessed: 14.05.2019]

Leakage Control Policy and Practice

This technical working group came up with the techniques for assessment and detection of leaks, but also developed guidelines for use of units to express leakage for further comparison with other areas in the same zone, amongst zones, amongst different systems in the same city and to compare systems of different cities bringing them on a common footing. It also presents possible targeted and good practice values.

WAA ; WRC (1985): Leakage Control Policy and Practice. London: Water Authorities Association (WAA), Water Research Centre (WRC), Technical Working Group on Waste Water URL [Accessed: 16.08.2010]
قراءات أخرى

Water Leak Detection and Repair Program

Part 1 presents the essentials of leak detection and repair, and could be used as a basis for awareness raising material or at least a quick overview of the topic (importance of leak detection, major causes, identification). Part 2 provides information on a comprehensive leak detection and repair program.

EPD (2007): Water Leak Detection and Repair Program. (= EPD Guidance Document ). Georgia: Environmental Protection Division (EPD) URL [Accessed: 14.07.2010]

Leak Detection and Water Loss Control

Concise and technical information aimed at small systems, describing the methods used to detect, locate and correct leaks. Also available in Spanish.

LAHLOU, Z.M. (2001): Leak Detection and Water Loss Control . (= National Drinking Water Clearinghouse Tech Brief No 17 ). Morgantown: National Environmental Services Centre (NESC) URL [Accessed: 14.07.2010]

Developing a Non-Revenue Water Reduction Strategy

Paper presented at the IWA's fourth World Water Congress in Marrakech. Guide to elaborate a “universal” non-revenue water reduction strategy, also applicable in developing countries. Divided in two parts. Part 1: Investigating and Assessing Water Losses, Part 2: Planning and Implementing the Strategy.

LIEMBERGER, R. FARLEY, M. (2004): Developing a Non-Revenue Water Reduction Strategy. Marrakech: International Water Association (IWA) URL [Accessed: 14.05.2019]

Chapter 9. Non-Revenue Water

Compilation of the water balance and non-revenue water in Asia. The publication contains strategies to reduce non-revenue water and other losses through case study, examples and practical measures.

MCINTOSH, A.C. (2003): Chapter 9. Non-Revenue Water. المُدخلات: MCINTOSH, A.C. ; (2003): Asian Water Supplies. Reaching the Urban Poor. . URL [Accessed: 14.05.2019]

Non-Revenue water Assessment

Summary, basic principles and many definitions of water balance and the focus areas to reduce non-revenue water.

NGUYEN, C.T. (2005): Non-Revenue water Assessment. Hanoi: South East Asian Water Utilities Network (SEAWUN). [Accessed: 29.07.2010] PDF

Leakage Control Policy and Practice

This technical working group came up with the techniques for assessment and detection of leaks, but also developed guidelines for use of units to express leakage for further comparison with other areas in the same zone, amongst zones, amongst different systems in the same city and to compare systems of different cities bringing them on a common footing. It also presents possible targeted and good practice values.

WAA ; WRC (1985): Leakage Control Policy and Practice. London: Water Authorities Association (WAA), Water Research Centre (WRC), Technical Working Group on Waste Water URL [Accessed: 16.08.2010]

Guidelines for Water Loss Reduction

These guidelines aim to impart knowledge about water loss reduction to decision-makers and stakeholders at the national level and to the management team, planning and design department and operating staff at local water utilities in developing and transition countries. The guidelines are accompanied by capacity development materials as well as the implementation of pilot projects in order to transfer know-how and implement state-of-the art pressure management (PM) technology in practice.

GIZ (2011): Guidelines for Water Loss Reduction. A Focus on Pressure Management. Eschborn: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH URL [Accessed: 13.05.2019]

Water Audit Manual

The Water Audit manual gives guidance on all aspects from when water gets to the distribution system to when water finally gets to the consumer. The scope of this water balance manual covers all aspects from the water supplied to the distribution system as well as water losses and/or used with the distribution system and what eventually reaches to the customer¿s premises and is billed/converted into revenue for the utility. The manual covers the procedures for determination of the various components of the water balance.

UN-HABITAT (2013): Water Audit Manual. (= Utility Management Series for Small Towns , 4 ). Nairobi: UN-HABITAT URL [Accessed: 14.05.2019]
حالات دراسية

Non Revenue Water Reduction

Case study presentation on Ibague, Colombia, to reduce non-revenue water. Leak detection campaign and commercial losses action plan.

LUPO, F. NGUYEN, P.A. NGUYEN, N.H. (2005): Non Revenue Water Reduction. (= Non Revenue Water Reduction ). FLUIDIS-WMI URL [Accessed: 14.05.2019]

Strategic Management of Water Leakage in the Maltese Islands

An efficient leakage control and reduction campaign on the Maltese islands had five major focuses: pressure management, active leakage localisation, dynamic leakage repair, network rationalisation and replacement of critically weak pipe work.

RIZZO, A. (2001): Strategic Management of Water Leakage in the Maltese Islands. Luqa: Water Services Corporation URL [Accessed: 14.07.2010]
مواد تدريبية

Performance Improvement Planning. Designing an Effective Leakage Reduction and Management Program

Field note on the implementation of non-revenue water programs through case studies of service providers in India and Vietnam. It describes the managerial and accountability instruments developed, complementary to technical measures.

AGRAWAL, P.C. (2008): Performance Improvement Planning. Designing an Effective Leakage Reduction and Management Program. (= Field Note No. 3 ). Washington: Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) URL [Accessed: 14.05.2019]

Water Distribution Management and Reduction

Presentation dealing with importance of controlling non-revenue water and managing water distribution. Different tools to do so and in particular to control leakage are presented. This publication also contains a case study from Thailand.

PEDERSEN, J. (2005): Water Distribution Management and Reduction . (= Presentation ). Denmark: Watertech Ltd. [Accessed: 16.08.2010] PDF

Leak Location and Repair

Guidance notes aimed at staff with little or no experience in leak detection and location techniques and practices. Compilation of international leakage expert's key best practices and technical understandings.

PILCHER, R. HAMILTON, S. CHAPMAN, H. FIELD, D. RISTOVSKI, B. STAPELY, S. (2007): Leak Location and Repair. (= Guidance Notes ). International Water Association (IWA) URL [Accessed: 14.05.2019]

Leakage Control Manual

It describes the objectives and functioning of a leakage control programme. The objectives of a Leak detection Programme (LRP) are: i. To reduce physical water losses through proactive visible-leak search campaigns and pressure regulation in all zones; ii. To reduce physical losses through prompt leak repairs in the entire water supply system / network.

UN-HABITAT (2013): Leakage Control Manual. (= Utility Management Series of Small Towns , 5 ). Nairobi: UN-HABITAT URL [Accessed: 02.04.2013]

Alternative Versions to